Rv 


Hi 


O 


WOLLPH.D.  m 


AGRIC,  DEPT, 


'  The  first  farmer  was  the  first  man,  and  all  historic 
nobility  rests  on  possession  and  use  of  land." 

— EMERSON. 


LIPPINCOTT'S 

FARM  MANUALS 

EDITED    BY 
KARY  C.  DAVIS,  Pn.D.  (CORNELL) 

PROFESSOR  OF  AGRICULTURE,  SCHOOL  OF  COUNTRY  LIFE 
GEORGE  PEABODY  COLLEGE  FOR  TEACHERS,  NASHVILLE,  TENNESSEE 


PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING 

OF 

FARM  ANIMALS 

BY  F.  W.  WOLL,  PH.D. 

PROFESSOR  OF  ANIMAL  NUTRITION,   UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA;    FORMERLY    PROFESSOR    OF 

AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY,    UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN,   AND  CHEMIST  TO  WISCONSIN 

AGRICULTURAL    EXPERIMENT    STATION;     EX-PRESIDENT    OF     ASSOCIATION     OF 

OFFICIAL  AGRICULTURAL   CHEMISTS  OF  NORTH  AMERICA 


LIPPINCOTTS 
FARM  MANUALS 

Edited  by  K.  C.  DAVIS,  Ph.D. 


PRODUCTIVE 
SWINE  HUSBANDRY 
BY  G.  E.  DAY,  B.S.A. 

Ontario  Agricultural  College 

$1.50  net 

PRODUCTIVE 
POULTRY   HUSBANDRY 

(2nd  Edition) 
BY  H.  R.  LEWIS,  B.S. 

Rutgers  College,  N.  J. 

$2.00  net 


PRODUCTIVE 
HORSE  HUSBANDRY 
BY  C.  W.  GAY,  D.V.M.,  B.S.A. 

University  of  Pennsylvania 

$1.50  net 

PRODUCTIVE 
ORCHARDING 

BY  FRED  C.  SEARS,  M.S. 

Professor  of  Pomology 
Massachusetts  Agricultural  College 

$1.50  net 

PRODUCTIVE 
SHEEP  HUSBANDRY 
BY  W.  C.  COFFEY,  M.S. 

University  of  Illinois 

IN  PREPARATION 


PRODUCTIVE 
VEGETABLE  GROWING 
BY  JOHN  W.  LLOYD,  M.S.A. 

University  of  Illinois 

$1.50  net 

COMMON  DISEASES 
OF  FARM  ANIMALS 
BY  R.  A.  CRAIG,  D.V.M. 

Purdue  University 

IN  PREPARATION 


LiPPiNCOTT's  FARM  MANUALS 

EDITED  BY  K.  C.  DAVIS,  PH.D.  (CORNELL) 

PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING 

OF 

FARM  ANIMALS 


BY 

F.  W.  WOLL,  PH.D. 

PROFESSOR   OF  ANIMAL   NUTRITION,   UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA;    FORMERLY    PROFESSOR    OF 

AGRICULTURAL   CHEMISTRY,   UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN,  AND  CHEMIST  TO  WISCONSIN 

AGRICULTURAL     EXPERIMENT    STATION;     EX-PRESIDENT    OF    ASSOCIATION    OF 

OFFICIAL  AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTS  OF  NORTH  AMERICA 


96  ILLUSTRATIONS  IN  THE  TEXT 


"  If  vain  our  toil. 
We  ought  to  blame  the  culture,  not  the  soil." 

POPE — Essay  on  Man 


PHILADELPHIA  &  LONDON 
J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  COMPANY 


/ 

*? 


COPYRIGHT,  IQIS, 
BY  J.    B.   LIPPINCOTT  COMPANY 


AGRIC,  DEPT, 


Electrotyped  and  printed  by  J.  B.  Lippincott  Company 
The  Washington  Square  Press,  Philadelphia,  U.  S.  A. 


PREFACE 

THE  general  interest  in  matters  pertaining  to  the  farm  and  farm 
life  that  has  been  evidenced  in  recent  years  is  one  of  the  wholesome 
signs  of  the  times.  Farm  animals  have  shared  in  this  increasing 
interest,  and  the  love  of  fine  stock,  as  well  as  the  desire  to  surround 
the  animals  with  conditions  that  will  secure  the  best  results  for  the 
care  and  labor  bestowed  upon  them,  has  been  a  potent  factor  in  the 
development  of  animal  industry  in  this  country  during  the  last 
generation.  For  permanent  and  fruitful  advance  in  agricultural 
matters,  it  is  agreed  that  the  boy  must  be  interested;  must  learn 
about  the  realities  and  problems  of  farm  life;  must  be  taught  how 
to  meet  these  and  how  to  adjust  himself  to  changes  in  new  conditions 
of  farming  that  may  arise.  Hence  we  find  that  courses  in  agricul- 
ture are  being  introduced  into  more  and  more  schools;  the  agricul- 
tural college  no  longer  has  a  monopoly  of  teaching  animal  husbandry, 
field  crops,  horticulture,  etc.  County  agricultural  schools  and  agri- 
cultural high  schools,  as  well  as  graded  schools  in  a  number  of 
States,  are  giving  their  pupils  an  opportunity  to  study  the  under- 
lying principles  of  farm  operations. 

Until  recently  there  were  no  text-books  that  met  the  needs  of 
these  different  classes  of  students.  This  want  is  now,  however, 
gradually  being  filled,  and  in  some  cases  there  is  already  a  choice 
of  carefully-prepared  books,  well  adapted  for  the  purpose  intended. 
This  volume  has  been  prepared  with  a  view  to  furnishing  students  in 
agricultural  schools  and  colleges,  as  well  as  practical  farmers,  with  a 
concise  discussion  of  the  main  principles  relating  to  the  feeding  of 
farm  animals  and  of  the  various  feeding  stuffs  available  to  our 
stockmen.  So  far  as  possible,  different  feeding  practices  for  the 
various  classes  of  farm  animals  have  also  been  given  and  discussed, 
pointing  the  way  to  profitable  methods  of  stock  feeding  under  the 
variety  of  conditions  existing  on  American  farms. 

The  treatment  of  this  subject  in  text-book  form  presents  pecu- 
liar difficulties.  In  view  of  the  immense  amount  of  research  work 
that  has  accumulated  and  is  being  conducted  and  published  every 
year,  at  public  expense  and  otherwise,  it  would  be  easy  to  present 
a  bewildering  mass  of  detailed  experimental  evidence  as  to  the  merits 
of  different  feeds  and  methods  of  feeding.  This  would  not,  how- 
ever, serve  the  purpose  of  either  teacher  or  student.  It  has  been  the 

v 


COPYRIGHT,  IQIS, 
BY  J.   B.   LIPPINCOTT  COMPANY 


M»t*Li&:  AGRIC,  DEfT, 


Electrotyped  and  printed  by  J.  B.  Lippincott  Company 
The  Washington  Square  Press,  Philadelphia,  U.  S.  A. 


PREFACE 

THE  general  interest  in  matters  pertaining  to  the  farm  and  farm 
life  that  has  been  evidenced  in  recent  years  is  one  of  the  wholesome 
signs  of  the  times.  Farm  animals  have  shared  in  this  increasing 
interest,  and  the  love  of  fine  stock,  as  well  as  the  desire  to  surround 
the  animals  with  conditions  that  will  secure  the  best  results  for  the 
care  and  labor  bestowed  upon  them,  has  been  a  potent  factor  in  the 
development  of  animal  industry  in  this  country  during  the  last 
generation.  For  permanent  and  fruitful  advance  in  agricultural 
matters,  it  is  agreed  that  the  boy  must  be  interested;  must  learn 
about  the  realities  and  problems  of  farm  life;  must  be  taught  how 
to  meet  these  and  how  to  adjust  himself  to  changes  in  new  conditions 
of  farming  that  may  arise.  Hence  we  find  that  courses  in  agricul- 
ture are  being  introduced  into  more  and  more  schools;  the  agricul- 
tural college  no  longer  has  a  monopoly  of  teaching  animal  husbandry, 
field  crops,  horticulture,  etc.  County  agricultural  schools  and  agri- 
cultural high  schools,  as  well  as  graded  schools  in  a  number  of 
States,  are  giving  their  pupils  an  opportunity  to  study  the  under- 
lying principles  of  farm  operations. 

Until  recently  there  were  no  text-books  that  met  the  needs  of 
these  different  classes  of  students.  This  want  is  now,  however, 
gradually  being  filled,  and  in  some  cases  there  is  already  a  choice 
of  carefully-prepared  books,  well  adapted  for  the  purpose  intended. 
This  volume  has  been  prepared  with  a  view  to  furnishing  students  in 
agricultural  schools  and  colleges,  as  well  as  practical  farmers,  with  a 
concise  discussion  of  the  main  principles  relating  to  the  feeding  of 
farm  animals  and  of  the  various  feeding  stuffs  available  to  our 
stockmen.  So  far  as  possible,  different  feeding  practices  for  the 
various  classes  of  farm  animals  have  also  been  given  and  discussed, 
pointing  the  way  to  profitable  methods  of  stock  feeding  under  the 
variety  of  conditions  existing  on  American  farms. 

The  treatment  of  this  subject  in  text-book  form  presents  pecu- 
liar difficulties.  In  view  of  the  immense  amount  of  research  work 
that  has  accumulated  and  is  being  conducted  and  published  every 
year,  at  public  expense  and  otherwise,  it  would  be  easy  to  present 
a  bewildering  mass  of  detailed  experimental  evidence  as  to  the  merits 
of  different  feeds  and  methods  of  feeding.  This  would  not,  how- 
ever, serve  the  purpose  of  either  teacher  or  student.  It  has  been  the 

v 


ftn/rvt 


vi  PREFACE 

aim  of  the  author  to  give  a  well-digested,  systematic  treatment  of 
the  subject.  It  is  hoped  that  the  presentation  will  commend  itself 
to  the  judgment  of  educators  and  farmers,  and  that  a  study  of  this 
book  will  aid  them  to  a  clear  understanding  of  the  principles  of 
productive  feeding  of  farm  animals. 

Acknowledgment  for  loan  of  photographs  or  cuts  is  due  to  the 
Directors  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Stations  at  Berkeley,  Cal. ; 
Ottawa,  Canada ;  Ithaca,  N.  Y. ;  State  College,  Pa. ;  Burlington,  Vt. ; 
Madison,  Wis.,  and  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry;  Professors 
K.  C.  Davis,  S.  B.  Doten,  David  Griffiths,  I.  D.  Iddings,  Frank  L. 
Peterson,  E.  A.  Trowbridge,  and  Gordon  H.  True;  American  Guern- 
sey Cattle  Club ;  W.  J.  Gillett,  Rosendale,  Wis. ;  A.  W.  Morris  &  Sons 
Corp.,  Woodland,  Cal.;  Publishers  Breeders'  Gazette,  Chicago,  and 
Pacific  Enrol  Press,  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  and  Hog  Motor  Company, 
Minneapolis. 

F.  W.  WOLL. 
DAVIS,  Cal.,  January,  1915. 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

INTRODUCTION 1 

PART  I.— PRINCIPLES  OF  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 

CHAPTER 

I.     THE  COMPOSITION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 5 

II.     THE  COMPOSITION  OF  ANIMALS 19 

III.  THE  DIGESTION  OF  FEEDS 26 

IV.  USES  OF  FEED  BY  ANIMALS  . 34 

V.     DETERMINATION  OF  THE  NUTRITIVE  VALUE  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS  40 

VI.     VARIATIONS  IN  THE  CHEMICAL  COMPOSITION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS  53 

VII.     CONDITIONS  AFFECTING  THE  DIGESTIBILITY  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS  63 

VIII.     CALCULATION  OF  RATIONS 71 

IX.     THE  FEED-UNIT  SYSTEM 79 

X.     RELATIVE  VALUE  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 82 

XI.     MANURIAL  VALUES  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 86 

PART  II.— DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 
A.  COARSE  FEEDS 

XII.     GREEN  FORAGE  AND  HAY  CROPS 90 

I.     Pastures 90 

II.     Soiling  Crops 95 

III.     Hay  Crops 98 

XIII.  GREEN  FORAGE  AND  HAY  CROPS — Continued 105 

I.     Annual  Forage  Crops 105 

II.     Hay  from  Leguminous  Crops 113 

III.     Straw  of  Cereals  and  Legumes 128 

XIV.  ROOTS,  TUBERS,  AND  OTHER  SUCCULENT  FEEDS 131 

XV.     SILOS  AND  SILAGE 149 

B.  DESCRIPTION  OF  CONCENTRATES 

XVI.     THE  CONCENTRATES.  .                   163 

I.     Cereal  Grains 163 

II.     Leguminous  and  Oil-bearing  Seeds 175 

XVII.     VARIOUS  FACTORY  BY-PRODUCTS 179 

I.     Flour  and  Cereal  Mill  Feeds 179 

II.     Brewery  and  Distillery  Feeds 188 

III.     Starch  and  Glucose  Factory  Feeds 190 

XVIII.     SUGAR  FACTORY  FEEDS  AND  OIL  MEALS 192 

I.     Sugar  Factory  Feeds 192 

II.     Oil  Meals 195 

XIX.     ANIMAL  FEEDS 204 

I.     Packing-house  Feeds 204 

II.     Dairy  Feeds • .  205 

XX.     MISCELLANEOUS  FEEDS 210 

I.     Proprietary  Feeds 210 

II.     Feeds  of  Minor  Importance 210 

III.     Condimental  Stock  Feeds -  .  212 

vii 


Vlll 


CONTENTS 


PART  III.— PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

XXI.  CALF  FEEDING 215 

XXII.  FEEDING  DAIRY  CATTLE 227 

XXIII.  FEEDING  BEEF  CATTLE 253 

XXIV.  FEEDING  HORSES  AND  MULES 277 

XXV.  FEEDING  SWINE 294 

XXVI.     FEEDING  SHEEP  AND  GOATS 317 

APPENDIX 

TABLE 

I.  COMPOSITION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 337 

II.  READY  REFERENCE  TABLES  FOR  CALCULATION  CF  RATIONS..  344 

III.  PRODUCTION  VALUES  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 349 

IV.  TABLE  OF  FEED  UNITS 350 

V.  MANURIAL  VALUE  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 351 

VI.     WEIGHTS  OF  CONCENTRATED  FEEDS.  . .  .  353 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


FIG.  PAGE 

Composition  of  Feeding  Stuffs  (Colored  Chart) Frontispiece 

1.  Water  in  Common  Feeding  Stuffs,  in  Per  Cent *  7 

2.  Mineral  Matter  in  a  Ton  of  Common  Feeds,  in  Pounds 8 

3.  Fats  in  Common  Feeding  Stuffs,  in  Per  Cent 12 

4.  Fiber  in  Plant  Materials,  in  Per  Cent 15 

5.  View  of  a  Chemical  Laboratory  for  Analysis  of  Feeding  Stuffs  and 

Other  Agricultural  Products 17 

6.  Composition  of  Live  Animals  Less  Contents  of  Stomach  and  Intes- 

tines, in  Per  Cent 20 

7.  The  Digestive  Apparatus  of  Ruminants 27 

8.  Digestible  Components  and  Nutritive  Ratios  of  Common  Feeds,  in 

Per  Cent 42 

9.  A  View  of  the  Respiration  Calorimeter  at  the  Pennsylvania  Experi- 

ment Station 46 

10.  Manurial  Value  of  Feeding  Stuffs 89 

11.  Shade  Trees  and  a  Running  Stream  in  the  Pasture  Make  for  the 

Health  and  Comfort  of  Farm  Animals 92 

12.  Indian  Corn  Grown  for  the  Silo  or  for  Soiling 95 

13.  The  Relative  Expense  of  Producing  and  Feeding  Soiling  Crops  is 

Considerably  Greater  than  in  the  Case  of  Silage 97 

14.  A  Field  of  Dwarf  Black-hull  Kafir  Corn 110 

15.  A  Soybean  Nitrogen  Factory 114 

16.  Alfalfa  will  Furnish  an  Abundance  of  Green  Feed  Throughout  the 

Growing  Season 115 

17.  Curing  and  Harvesting  Alfalfa •  •  •  116 

18.  Crimson  Clover 120 

19.  Sweet  Clover  is  an  Excellent  Soil  Builder 122 

20.  A  South  Carolina  Vetch  Field 123 

21.  A  Field  of  Soybeans 126 

22.  Half-sugar  Mangels 134 

23.  Rutabagas  (Bloomsdale),  a  Good  Type  for  Stock  Feeding 135 

24.  Carrots  for  Stock  Feeding 136 

25.  Pigs  on  Rape 139 

26.  Spineless  Cactus  Yields  Large  Crops  of  a  Very  Watery  Feed  under 

Favorable  Conditions 146 

27.  Stave  Silos , 149 

28.  A  Good  Concrete  Silo 152 

29.  A  California  Dairy  Barn  with  Concrete  Silos 153 

30.  A  "Re-saw"  Silo  Being  Filled  with  Alfalfa 154 

31.  Battery  of  Four  Cement  Silos  on  a  California  Cattle  Ranch 155 

32.  Corn  and  Soybeans  Grown  for  Silage 160 

ix 


x  ILLUSTRATIONS 

33.  Weeds  Growing  from  Seed  Found  in  a  Mixed  "Dairy  Feed" 171 

34.  Types  of  Grain  Sorghums 173 

35.  Diagram  Showing  Increase  in  Area  Sown  to  Grain  Sorghums  in 

Kansas  during  the  Decade  1904-13 . . 174 

36.  Section  of  Corn  Kernel 185 

37.  Cross-section  of  Flaxseed  Showing  the  Different  Layers  of  Cells . . .   196 

38.  The  Swelling  Test 197 

39.  Holstein  Skim-milk-Calves 208 

40.  Dairy  Calves  in  the  Pasture 217 

41.  At  Meal  Time  the  Calf  is  Fed  Warm,  Sweet  Milk  in  a  Clean  Pail, 

While  Securely  Fastened  in  a  Comfortable  Stanchion 218 

42.  Calves  in  Stanchions  in  Pasture 219 

43.  Dairy  Cows  of  Good  Breeding  and  Well  Kept  and  Cared  for  Make 

Excellent  Returns  "at  the  Pail" 228 

44.  Normal  Changes  in  Monthly  Yield  and  Fat  Content  of  Milk  from 

Dairy  Cows 232 

45.  Areas  of  Circles  Representing  Average  Values  of  the  Products  from 

the  Best  Ten  or  the  Poorest  Ten  Cows  in  the  Wisconsin  Dairy 
Cow  Competition,  1909-1911 236 

46.  Liberal  Rations  Fed  to  Cows  of  Beefy  Tendencies  Produce  a  Gain 

in  Weight 236 

47.  Spring  Milk-scale  Enabling  the  Farmer  to  Keep  Accurate  Milk 

Records  of  his  Cows  with  but  Very  Little  Extra  Effort 237 

48.  Babcock  Test  Apparatus 238 

49.  Production  and  Size  are  the  Factors  Determining  the  Feed  Re- 

quirements of  Dairy  Cows 239 

50.  Alfalfa  is,  as  a  Rule,  Fed  in  Racks  in  the  Corrals  (Feeding  Yards) 

to  Milch  Cows  in  the  Western  States 246 

51 .  The ' '  Meal  Cart "  Used  for  Weighing  Concentrates  for  the  Individual 

Cows  in  the  Herd 247 

52.  Weighing  Rations  for  the  Dairy  Herd 248 

53.  Yeksa  Sunbeam,  No.  15439,  Guernsey 249 

54.  Colantha  4th  Johanna,  No.  48577,  Holstein 249 

55.  May  Rilma,  No.  22761,  Guernsey 250 

56.  Tilly  Alcartra,  No.   123459,  Holstein 250 

57.  The  Number  and  Value  of  Cattle  Other  than  Milch  Cows  in  the 

United  States,  April  15,  1910 254 

58.  Number  of  Beef  Cattle  in  the  Corn  Belt  States,  1913 254 

59.  Increase  in  Number  of  Cattle  in  this  Country  from  1890  to  1910. .  .  255 

60.  The  Amount  of  Grain  Required  to  Produce  a  Hundred  Pounds  of 

Gain  in  Fattening  Steers  Increases  with  the  Range  of  the  Feed- 
ing Period  from  about  730  Pounds  to  1000  Pounds 260 

61.  Tennessee  Steers  in  the  Feed  Lot 263 

62.  Steer  Feeding  Barns  and  Feeding  Troughs  on  a  California  Cattle 

Ranch 267 

63.  Beef  Cattle  Fattened  on  Corn,  Fed  in  Large,  Flat  Troughs 268 


ILLUSTRATIONS  xi 


64.  The  Self-feeder  is  Used  by  Many  Farmers  in  the  Cora  l^elt  States 

for  Feeding  Corn  or  Grain  Mixtures  to  Fattening  Steers  .....  268 

65.  A  Mississippi-raised  "Baby  Beef"  Calf  .........................  269 

66.  A  Grand  Champion  Shorthorn  Bull  ............................  270 

67.  Fattening  Steers  in  California  .................................  272 

68.  Draft  Horses  that  Give  a  Good  Account  of  Themselves  in  the 

Show  Ring,  as  Breeding  Animals  and  for  Doing  Heavy  Work  278 

69.  Horses  on  the  Western  Range  .................................  289 

70.  A  Team  of  Farm  Work  Mules  ...............................  .  .  291 

71.  A  Group  of  Young  Berkshire  Pigs  .............................  295 

72.  The  Amount  of  Feed  Consumed  Per  100  Pounds    of  Gain   for 

Fattening  Pigs  Increases  with  Their  Live  Weights  ...........  296 

73.  Well-fed,  Busy  Youngsters  that  will  Grow  into  Good  Porkers  ....  297 

74.  Diagram  Showing  the  Number  of  Bushels  of  Corn  and  Number  of 

Swine  and  Cattle  Listed  in  the  Twelve  Leading  Corn-growing 
States  in  the  Union,  According  to  the  Census  of  1910  ........  299 

75  and  76.     Pigs  Fed  for  "Fat  and  Lean"  .  ............................  301 

77.  Meal  Time  for  the  Swine  Herd  ................................  302 

78.  Making  Pork  on  Rape  and  Oats  ...............................  303 

79.  Making  Pork  on  Blue  Grass  ...................................  304 

80.  A  Thrifty  Bunch  of  Sows  and  Pigs  Crowding  around  the  Feed 

Troughs  ................................................  307 

81.  A    Cement   Feeding   Floor   Provided   with   Sanitary   Substantial 

Troughs  is  an  Essential  to  a  Well-equipped  Piggery  .........   309 

82.  The  "Hog  Motor,"  a  Device  for  Making  Pigs  Grind  the  Corn  They 

Eat  ....................................................  309 

83.  Portable  Hog-houses  with  Low,  Flat  Roofs  ......................  310 

84.  Interior  Arrangement  of  Hog-houses  at  Illinois  Station  .....  .  .....  311 

85.  The  Self-feeder  Saves  Labor  in  Feeding  Pigs  and  other  Farm 

Animals  ................................................  312 

86.  A   Convenient  Self-feeder  for  Supplying   Charcoal  and   Mineral 

Matter  to  Pigs  on  Pasture  ................................  314 

87.  Pure-bred  Flock  of  Mutton  Sheep  at  the  Morgan  Horse  Farm.  .  .  .  319 

88.  A  Fine  Bunch  of  Yearling  Rams  ...............................  320 

89.  A  Good  Type  of  Mutton  Sheep  ................................  320 

90.  Grade  Dorset  Lambs  from  Merino  Ewes  Make  Excellent  Hot- 

house Lambs  ............................................  326 

91.  Range  Sheep  in  Feed  Yards  at  Caldwell,  Nevada  ................  328 

92.  A  Flock  of  Sheep  on  a  Western  Range  ..........................  328 

93.  Lamb-feeding  Corrals  in  Nevada  ...............................  329 

94.  Winter  Scene  of  Range  Sheep  in  the  Nevada  Mountains  .........  330 

95.  A  Flock  of  Angora  Goats  in  the  California  Foothills  ..............  332 

96.  An  Imported  Swiss  Milch  Goat  ................................  333 


PRODUCTIVE    FEEDING 
OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


INTRODUCTION 

PRODUCTIVE  feeding  of  farm  animals  is  only  one  of  the  factors 
on  which  successful  animal  husbandry  depends ;  others  are :  Keep- 
ing the  right  kind  of  stock ;  giving  it  the  necessary  care  and  atten- 
tion and  maintaining  the  animals  in  a  healthy  condition.  Each  of 
these  factors  is  of  fundamental  importance  to  the  stockman.  If 
one  is  not  given  due  attention,  the  results  secured  will  not  be  satis- 
factory, no  matter  how  favorable  the  conditions  with  which  the 
animals  may  be  surrounded  in  other  respects. 

A  clear  understanding  of  the  main  principles  underlying  the 
nutrition  of  farm  animals  has  never  been  more  important  to  the 
stock  farmer  than  at  the  present  time,  with  prevailing  high  prices  for 
feed  and  labor.  In  order  to  secure  profitable  returns,  the  farmer 
must  be  able  to  adapt  these  principles  to  the  special  conditions  that 
surround  him;  these  are  likely  to  vary  in  different  years,  both  as  to 
prices  and  products.  Modern  industries  supply  immense  quantities 
of  by-products  that  serve  as  feed  for  farm  stock,  such  as  flour-  and 
oil-mill  feeds,  starch  and  sugar-factory  feeds,  brewery  and  dis- 
tillery feeds,  and  others.  These  differ  much  in  nutritive  values  as 
well  as  in  cost.  Since  better  results  may  be  obtained  in  feeding 
stock  a  combination  of  different  feeds  than  from  only  one  or 
two,  it  is  important  not  only  to  understand  the  principles  of  stock 
feeding,  but  to  become  familiar  with  the  different  available  feeding 
stuffs,  their  main  characteristics  and  nutritive  properties,  as  well 
as  their  relative  values  under  changing  market  conditions.  Only 
in  this  way  can  the  stock  farmer  secure  the  best  and  most  economical 
returns  from  his  feeding  operations  and  make  stock  raising  pay; 
provided  the  other  factors  have  received  proper  attention:  Keep- 
ing animals  adapted  for  the  purpose  in  view,  and  giving  them  the 
care  which  they  require  in  order  to  do  well. 

Animal  husbandry  is  one  of  the  most  remunerative  branches  of 
agriculture  when  rightly  conducted,  and  it  makes  permanent  agri- 
culture possible.  The  stock  farmer  is  a  manufacturer,  converting 

1 


2  INTRODUCTION 

the  raw  materials  raised  on  the  farm  into  valuable  human  food 
products.  Generally  speaking,  the  animal  products  sold  contain 
only  small  amounts  of  fertility,  and  the  stock  farmer  can,  there- 
fore, secure  good  crops  from  his  land  for  an  indefinite  period  with  a 
relatively  small  outlay  for  fertilizers.  He  does  not,  like  many 
grain  farmers,  rob  the  farm  of  its  fertility  until  it  will  no  longer 
produce  paying  crops,  making  it  necessary  to  change  the  system 
of  farming  or  to  move  on  to  some  other  section  where  the  same 
method  of  selling  the  fertility  of  the  land  can  be  repeated.  Stock 
farming  can  be  pursued  on  the  same  land  with  excellent  results 
from  generation  to  generation,  and  for  centuries,  as  is  shown  by 
conditions  in  the  agricultural  regions  of  the  Old  World. 

The  livestock  farmer  utilizes  his  own  labor  and  that  of  his 
family  throughout  the  year,  and  not  only  during  the  growing  sea- 
son. Stock  raising  in  general  leads  to  thrift  and  develops  some 
of  the  best  qualities  in  man.  His  children  grow  up  with  young 
stock  and  learn  to  enjoy  and  love  them,  and  thus  in  turn  acquire  one 
of  the  fundamentals  for  successful  animal  husbandry,  an  apprecia- 
tion of  good  stock  and  love  of  animals.  Without  these  qualities,  a 
farmer  is  not  likely  to  give  his  stock  the  watchful  care  that  they 
require  for  best  results. 

There  are  various  reasons  why  animal  husbandry  will  continue 
to  be  one  of  the  best  paying  branches  of  agriculture  in  America. 
One  is,  that  our  population  is  increasing  considerably  faster  than  is 
the  number  of  farm  animals.  This  holds  true  of  all  classes  of 
livestock,  except  horses;  there  has,  in  reality,  been  an  actual  de- 
crease in  the  number  of  cattle,  sheep,  and  swine  in  this  country 
since  the  beginning  of  the  present  century,  while  our  population  in- 
creased over  twenty  per  cent  from  1900  to  1910. 

Another  reason  why  stock  raising  will  prove  a  profitable  busi- 
ness in  the  future  is  the  fact  that  it  is  not  likely  to  be  overcrowded. 
Stock  raising  calls  for  a  larger  investment  than  grain  farming,  and 
many  farmers  do  not  have  or  cannot  secure  the  necessary  capital  to 
engage  in  animal  husbandry;  this  is  true  especially  of  the  large 
and  increasing  class  of  tenant  farmers  in  many  of  the  States. 
Furthermore,  it  takes  from  nearly  a  year  to  three  or  four  years, 
according  to  the  system  of  stock  raising  adopted,  before  the  invest- 
ment will  yield  any  revenue.  Like  people  in  other  walks  of  life, 
many  farmers  lack  the  necessary  business  ability  and  foresight  to 
plan  ahead  for  such  a  period.  If  cattle,  e.g.,  are  low,  and  produce 
little  or  no  revenue  one  year,  it  is  easy  to  get  discouraged,  and 
many  cannot  see  that  such  a  period  is  just  the  time  when  one  should 


INTRODUCTION  3 

plan  for  cattle  raising,  since  a  shortage  of  cattle  with  resulting 
high  prices  is  certain  to  follow  a  period  of  low  prices. 

The  preceding  considerations  suggest  the  reasons  for  the  belief 
held  by  those  familiar  with  the  situation,  that  the  prospects  for  the 
livestock  industry  in  this  country  are  very  bright.  In  spite  of  the 
high  cost  of  feed  and  labor  and  the  rise  in  land  values  during  the 
last  decade,  the  industry  will  furnish  excellent  opportunities  for 
farmers  that  give  their  stock  good  care.  But  the  changed  condi- 
tions call  for  a  higher  type  of  farming  and  stock  raising  than  that 
followed  by  the  majority  of  farmers  of  earlier  times. 

Only  improved  stock,  bred  for  the  specific  purpose  in  view,  can 
give  the  results  that  must  be  reached  to  make  stock  raising  profit- 
able on  high-priced  land,  and  systems  of  feeding  and  management 
must  be  adopted  that  will  secure  such  returns  at  a  minimum  cost. 
To  be  successful,  the  stock  raiser  must  be  a  student  and  a  business 
man,  in  addition  to  a  farmer.  He  should  secure  all  the  technical 
knowledge  relating  to  his  profession  that  he  can,  and  understand 
the  leading  principles  of  the  livestock  industry,  so  that  he  may  be 
prepared  to  grapple  successfully  with  the  problems  that  confront  the 
stockman. 


PART  I 

PRINCIPLES  OF  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 

CHAPTEE  I 
THE  COMPOSITION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 

THE  feeding  stuffs  used  for  the  nutrition  of  farm  animals  are, 
as  a  general  rule,  of  vegetable  origin.  They  are  either  farm  crops 
grown  especially  for  this  purpose,  or  are  by-products  from  manu- 
facturing processes  in  which  farm  crops  furnish  the  raw  materials. 
It  will  be  well,  therefore,  to  examine  into  the  composition  of  plants 
at  the  outset,  in  order  that  the  discussions  given  in  the  following 
pages  relative  to  the  feeding  of  farm  animals  and  problems  con- 
nected therewith  may  be  clearly  understood. 

Chemical  Elements. — Plants  are  composed  of  an  immense 
number  of  different  compounds ;  some  of  these  are  present  in  large 
proportions,  others  in  only  small  amounts.  When  these  compounds 
are  separated  into  their  ultimate  constituents  we  find  that  they  con- 
tain a  relatively  small  number  of  substances  which,  according  to 
our  present  knowledge,  cannot  be  further  subdivided.  These  sub- 
stances are  known  as  elements.  About  a  dozen  of  the  elements  are 
absolutely  necessary  to  plant  life,  and  no  plant  can  grow  in  the 
absence  of  one  or  more  of  them.  These  so-called  essential  elements 
are: 

Carbon,  oxygen,  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  sulfur,  phosphorus,  potas- 
sium, calcium,  magnesium,  iron,  fluorin,  and  iodin. 

A  few  other  elements  may  not  be  essential  to  plant  growth,  but 
are  always  present  in  plants.  These  are : 

Sodium,  chlorin,  silicon,  and  manganese. 

The  first  group  of  elements,  in  fact  the  first  six  of  them,  make 
up  the  bulk  of  all  plant  materials ;  over  95  per  cent  of  the  weight 
of  most  plants  and  feeding  stuffs  is  composed  of  these  few  elements. 
But  the  other  essential  elements,  although  present  in  small  amounts, 
are  equally  important,  since  plants  cannot  grow  to  maturity  if  any 
of  them  be  lacking  in  the  soil  or  not  available  to  the  plant. 

Group  of  Components  in  Feeds. — The  elements  given  in  the 
preceding  paragraph  are  present  in  plants  in  chemical  combinations 
with  each  other,  forming  in  some  cases  very  complex  substances 

5 


6  PRINCIPLES  OF  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 

whose  exact  composition  has  not  yet  been  ascertained.  For  our 
present  purpose  they  may,  however,  be  conveniently  considered  as 
belonging  to  a  few  groups  of  substances  which  can  be  readily  deter- 
mined by  chemists.  These  groups  of  components  are  separated  in 
the  customary  chemical  analysis  of  feeding  stuffs,  and  the  per- 
centage quantities  present  in  each  are  ascertained.  For  the  pur- 
poses of  chemical  analysis  and  for  our  discussions  we  may  thus 
consider  plant  materials  composed  of — 

I.  Water. 

II.  Dry  substance. 

The  dry  substance  of  plants  is  of  either  (1)  mineral  or  (2)  so- 
called  organic  origin.  The  former  components  are  known  as 
mineral  matter  or  ash;  while  the  organic  matter  is  composed  of 
the  following  groups  of  substances :  Protein,  fat,  nitrogen-free 
extract,  and  fiber.  The  last  two  belong  to  a  group  of  substances 
known  as  carbohydrates. 

The  schedule  given  below  will  help  to  make  clear  these  various 
groups  of  plant  components  : 

Plants  contain —  Composed  of  the  elements 

I.  Water Oxygen,  hydrogen. 

!  Potassium,  sodium,  calcium, 
magnesium,  sulfur  chlo- 
nn,  iron,  phosphorus, 
silicon,  etc. 

( Carbon,  oxygen,  hydrogen, 

2.  Protein 1      nitrogen,  sulfur  (and 

I     sometimes    phosphorus). 

3.  Fat ] 

4.  Nitrogen-free  extract  [  Carbon,  oxygen,  hydrogen. 

5.  Fiber..  .' J 

,  COMPOSITION  OF  PLANTS 

Water  is  found  in  all  plants  and  plant  materials,  ranging  in 
amount  from  5  per  cent  to  95  per  cent  in  extreme  cases.  Some 
factory  by-products  which  have  been  artificially  dried  contain  less 
than  10  per  cent,  in  some  cases  as  low  as  5  per  cent  of  water.  Hay 
and  dry  coarse  feeds  generally  contain  from  10  to  20  per  cent, 
while  corn  fodder  (stover)  and  some  kinds  of  hay,  as  alfalfa,  will 
occasionally  contain  as  much  as  30  per  cent  of  water  when  im- 
perfectly cured  or  exposed  to  damp  or  rainy  weather.  The  cereals 
and  most  concentrated  feeds  contain  about  12  per  cent  water; 
green  forage  crops  from  70  to  90  per  cent ;  silage,  70  to  80  per 


THE  COMPOSITION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 


cent;  root  crops,  beet  pulp,  and  wet  brewers'  grains,  80  to  90  per 
cent;  in  case  of  turnips  and  some  vegetables,  as  pumpkins,  the 
water  content  may  reach  even  93  to  95  per  cent  (Fig.  1). 

A  knowledge  of  the  amount  of  water  in  a  feeding  stuff  is  im- 
portant, both  because  its  value  for  the  nutrition  of  farm  animals 
is  dependent  thereon  and  because  its  keeping  quality  is  affected 
thereby.  An  excessive  water  content  renders  plant  materials  liable 
to  decomposition  through  the  growth  of  bacteria  and  molds. 

Water  is  the  vehicle  by  which  nutrients  in  both  plants  and  ani- 
mals are  transported  from  one  part  to  another.  Plants  absorb  it 
from  the  soil  through  their  roots,  and  with  it  take  up  mineral 
matter  held  in  solution  in  the  soil  water.  The  quantity  of  water 


10       20 


30 


50        60        70        80        90        100 


MANGELS 
SKIM  MILK 
TURNIPS 
COW51  MILK 
RAPE 

PASTURE  GRA55 
GREEN  CORN 
GREEN  CLOVER 
CORN  5TALK5 
CLOVER   HAY 
TIMOTHY  HAY 
WHEAT    BRAN 
INDIAN    CORN 
OIL  MEAL 
DRIED  BEET  PULP 


FIG.  1. — Water  in  common  feeding  stuffs,  in  per  cent. 

thus  taken  up  by  plants  is  very  large,  and  this  is  partly  retained 
in  the  cells  and  the  sap  of  the  plants,  and  partly  again  evaporated 
through  the  leaves.  For  every  pound  of  dry  substance  in  the  plant 
it  has  been  found  that  about  400  pounds  of  water  are  required,  on 
the  average,  the  exact  figure  varying  from  below  300  to  over  1000 
pounds,  according  to  the  character  of  the  soil  and  the  crop. 

Dry  Substance. — The  components  of  the  dry  substance  of 
plants  considered  in  the  following  pages  are :  Mineral  matter  or  ash, 
protein,  fat,  nitrogen -free  extract,  and  fiber. 

Mineral  matter  in  plants  is  derived- from  the  soil  through  the 
root  system.  This  is  the  portion  of  the  plants  which  remains  as 
ashes  after  combustion.  It  is  composed  of  the  elements  already 
given  and,  in  addition,  of  many  elements  that  happen  to  be  present 


8 


PRINCIPLES  OF  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 


in  the  soil  where  the  plant  grew.  The  elements  found  in  the  mineral 
matter  are  present  in  one  or  two  forms :  Either  in  inorganic  form, 
in  combinations  of  two  or  more  of  the  elements,  as  sulfates,  phos- 
phates, nitrates,  chlorides,  or  silicates,  combined  with  bases,  as 
potassium,  sodium,  calcium,  magnesium,  and  iron;  or  in  organic 
form,  as  constituents  of  organic  compounds.  Especially  in  the  case 
of  seeds  of  plants  the  ash  materials  are  present  largely  in  the 
latter  form. 

Ordinary  feeding  stuffs  contain,  as  a  rule,  only  relatively  small 
amounts  of  mineral  matter,  viz. :  Less  than  5  per  cent,  except  in 
the  case  of  some  factory  by-products  and  dry  forage,  in  which 
the  ash  content  may  go  even  above  10  per  cent.  Leafy  plants  con- 


10    20   30    40   50   60    70  60  90  100  110   120  130  140  150  160  170  180 


ALFALFA  HAY 
COTTON-SEED  MEAL 
CLOVER  HAY 
WHEAT  BRAN 
LINSEED  MEAL 
DRIED  BEET  PULP 
TIMOTHY  HAY 
DRIED  BREWERS' 
OATS" 
CORN 

GLUTEN  FEED 
POTATOES 


FIG.  2. — Mineral  matter  in  a  ton  of  common  feeds,  in  pounds. 

tain  relatively  large  percentages  of  ash,  like  all  parts  of  plants  in 
which  a  considerable  evaporation  of  water  takes  place.  On  the 
other  hand,  by-products  in  manufacturing  processes  where  the  raw 
materials  are  treated  with  large  quantities  of  water,  as  gluten  feed, 
brewers'  grains,  etc.,  have  comparatively  small  ash  contents  (Fig.  2). 

Protein  is  a  general  name  for  nitrogenous  organic  compounds 
of  a  very  complex  chemical  structure.  They  contain  carbon,  oxygen, 
hydrogen,  and  nitrogen,  with  a  small  percentage  of  sulfur  and,  in 
some  cases,  phosphorus.  The  name  protein  was  given  to  these  sub- 
stances by  Mulder,  a  German  chemist,  and  means  the  first  or  the 
most  important.  This  term  is  justified  from  a  physiological  point 
of  view,  inasmuch  as  protein  is  absolutely  essential  to  animal  life. 

The  protein  substances  are  characterized  by  the  fact  that  all 
contain  the  element  nitrogen,  which  is  not  found  in  the  other  groups 


THE  COMPOSITION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS  9 

of  organic  plant  substances.  Jt  was  formerly  believed  that  all  pro- 
teins contain  about  16  per  cent  nitrogen,  and,  since  this  element 
can  be  readily  determined  by  the  chemist,  the  content  of  protein  in 
a  substance  was  obtained  by  multiplying  the  nitrogen  content  by^, 
or  6.25.  Later  investigations  showed  that  the  different  protein  sub- 
stances vary  considerably  in  chemical  composition,  and  that  the  per- 
centage of  nitrogen  they  contain  may  range  from  15  to  over  19  per 
cent.  Hence,  the  factor  6.25  is  often  not  correct,  but  it  is  generally 
applied,  since  our  knowledge  of  the  composition  of  pure  proteins 
from  different  sources  is  still  incomplete.  We  shall,  therefore,  con- 
tinue the  use  of  the  factor  6.25  in  this  book  until  chemists  have 
agreed  on  specific  factors  to  be  used  in  the  case  of  plant  materials 
and  feeding  stuffs  of  different  origin. 

Besides  nitrogen,  proteins  contain  between  50  and  55  per  cent 
of  carbon,  6  to  7  per  cent  hydrogen,  20  to  24  per  cent  oxygen, 
0.3  to  2.3  per  cent  sulfur;  the  phosphorus  content  of  the  proteins 
in  which  this  element  is  present  ranges  between  0.4  and  0.9  per 
cent.  The  average  composition  of  protein  substances  may  be  given 
as  follows  : 

Carbon,  53  per  cent.  Nitrogen,  16  per  cent. 

Hydrogen,  7  per  cent.  Sulfur,  2  per  cent. 

Oxygen,  22  per  cent. 

The  proteins  form  a  most  important  group  of  nutrients,  since 
they  furnish  the  materials  for  building  up  body  tissues  and  fluids; 
other  nutrients  cannot  take  their  place  for  this  purpose.  We  shall 
see,  however,  that  protein  may  also  serve  other  purposes  than  to 
furnish  material  for  tissue  building  when  necessary,  viz. :  To  supply 
energy  that  may  be  used  for  maintaining  body  heat,  for  performing 
work,  or  for  storage  as  body  fat. 

Classification  of  Proteins. — Protein  substances  are  generally  classified 
as  (1)  simple,  (2)  conjugated,  and  (3)  derived  proteins. 

1.  Simple  Proteins. — The  most  important  compounds  in  this  group 
are  given  below. 

a.  Albumins. — These  are  soluble  in  pure  water  and  are  coagulated  and 
rendered  insoluble  by  heat.  They  are  present  in  small  amounts  in  the  sap 
and  seeds  of  plants.  The  main  proteins  found  in  the  animal  body  belong 
to  this  class,  viz.:  Those  of  the  muscle,  blood,  milk,  and  eggs.  Leucosin 
found  in  the  cereals,  legumelin  found  in  leguminous  seeds,  ricin  in  castor 
bean,  and  tuberin  in  potatoes,  belong  to  this  class.  ^ 

6.  Globulins  are  insoluble  in  water,  but  soluble  in  a  10  per  cent  sodium 
chloride  solution.  The  globulins  are  abundant  in  plant  materials  and  have 
been  identified  in  many  seeds  of  plants.  The  following  are  present  in 
the  cereals  and  other  common  seeds:  Maysin  in  corn  kernels,  edestin  in 
corn,  wheat,  cotton  seed,  and  flaxseed,  avenalin  in  oats,  legumin  and 
vicilin  in  leguminous  seeds  (peas,  lentils,  horse  beans),  glycin  in  soy- 
beans, and  conglutin  in  lupines. 


10  PRINCIPLES  OF  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 

c.  Prolamins  are  insoluble  in  water  and  soluble  in  70  to  90  per  cent 
alcohol.    To  this  class  belong  gliadin,  found  in  wheat  and  rye  grain ;  hordein 
in  barley,  and  zein  in  corn. 

d.  Glutelins    are    insoluble   in   water,    salt    solutions,   or    alcohol,    and 
soluble  in  dilute  alkali  solutions.    Glutenin  belonging  in  this  group  is  found 
in  seeds  of  wheat,  barley,  oats,  and  corn. 

The  following  summary  shows  the  simple  plant  proteins  that  have 
been  identified  in  cereals  and  some  other  seeds ;  the  approximate  percentages 
present  in  each  case,  as  given  by  Osborne,  are  stated. 

In  wheat  grains:  Leucosin,  0.3;  edestin,  O.G;  gliadin,  4.25,  and 
glutenin,  4.0. 

Rye:     Leucosin,  0.4;   gliadin,  4.0. 

Barley:    Leucosin,  0.3;  hordein,  4.0;  glutenin,  4.5. 

Oats:    Avenalin,  1.5;  glutenin,  11.25. 

Corn:    Maysin,  0.25;  edestin,  0.14;  zein,  6.1,  and  glutenin,  3.8.1 

Peas:  Legumelin,  2.0;  legumin  and  vicilin,  10.0. 

Flaxseed:  Edestin,  17.6. 

Horse  beans:  Legumelin,  1.5;  legumin  and  vicilin,  13.0.. 

2.  Conjugated  or  Modified  Proteins. — These  substances  have  been  modi- 
fied so  as  to  possess  different  chemical  and  physical  properties  from  the 
simple  proteins  thus  far  considered,  either  through  combinations  with  other 
compounds,   or  through  the  action   of   ferments,  heat,   or   chemicals.     The 
nucleoproteins  belong  to  this  group,  of  which  the  best  known  is  casein  of 
milk.      They   contain   phosphorus   in    addition   to   the    elements   that   are 
always  found  in  protein  substances. 

3.  Derived   Proteins. — These    are   intermediate   bodies   formed   in   the 
cleavage   of   the   protein   molecule   in   the   process   of   digestion;    they   are 
diffusible  and  are  assimilated  by  the  living  cell  for  use  in  the  building 
up    (synthesis)    of   true   proteins.      Proteose    and   peptones   are   the    more 
important    representatives    of   this   class.      On    further    cleavage    they    are 
changed  into  amino  acids,  the  final  decomposition  products  formed  in  the 
digestion  of  protein  substances.     The  amino  acids  are  the  primary  build- 
ing materials  out  of  which  the  protein  substances  of  the  animal  body  are 
formed.     The  different  protein  substances  vary  greatly  in  the  proportions 
of  amino  acids  into  which  they  may  be  broken  up;   the  differences  in  the 
nutritive  effects   of  proteins   of   different   origin   that  have  been  observed 
appear  to  be  intimately  connected  with  this  fact. 

Amino  Acids  and  Amides. — Both  amino  acids  and  amides  are 
protein  substances  of  simpler  molecular  structure  than  those  con- 
sidered in  the  preceding  paragraphs.  The  former  are  found  free  in 
only  small  amounts  in  plants,  while  amides  occur  in  abundance  in 
the  sap  of  green  a*nd  young  plants,  especially  after  sprouting,  as 
well  as  in  all  immature  plant  materials.  The  best  known  amides 
are  asparagin,  found  in  young  asparagus,  peas  and  beans ;  glutamin 
and  betain,  found  in  the  beet  root,  etc.  The  amides  are  inter- 
mediate products  formed  in  the  living  plant  from  inorganic  ma- 
terials (nitric  acid  or  ammonia),  and  are  later  changed  into  complex 
protein  substances.  They  are  also  formed  in  the  decomposition  of 
proteins  through  the  action  of  bacteria  and  molds,  hence  are 
always  present  in  silage  and  other  fermented  feeds. 

1  Assumed. 


THE  COMPOSITION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS  11 

In  contradistinction  to  total  or  crude  protein  (i.e.,  total  nitrogen 
multiplied  by  6.25),  the  protein  substances  other  than  amides  are 
called  true  proteins  or  albuminoids.  The  amides  are  considered 
of  inferior  value  in  feeding  farm  animals  by  some  authorities,  but  it 
has  been  shown  that  they  will  save  body  protein  from  decomposition, 
and,  in  some  cases  at  least,  they  can  be  utilized  for  the  building  up 
of  protein  tissues  in  the  animal  body.  Amides  are  also  present  in 
small  amounts  in  dry  feeds  and  in  most  concentrates. 

The  average  proportion  of  non-albuminoid  ("  amide  ")  nitro- 
gen in  various  feeds  is  as  follows:  Green  forage  crops,  20  to  40 
per  cent  of  the  total  nitrogen  content,  according  to  the  stage  when 
cut;  corn  silage,  40  per  cent;  mangels,  60  per  cent;  potatoes,  40 
per  cent;  small  grains,  3  to  11  per  cent;  mill  feed,  10  per  cent, 
and  oil  meals,  4  per  cent. 

High-  and  Low-protein  Feeds. — Feeds  rich  in  protein  sub- 
stances are  spoken  of  as  high-protein  feeds,  or  simply  protein  feeds 
or  nitrogenous  feeds,  and  those  low  in  protein  are  called  low-protein 
or  starchy  feeds.  Among  the  former  class  (high-protein  feeds) 
may  be  mentioned : 

Concentrates. — Peanut  cake  meal,  containing  about  48  per  cent 
protein;  cotton-seed  meal  and  soybean  meal,  40  to  45  per  cent; 
gluten  meal,  34  to  36  per  cent ;  soybeans  and  linseed  meal,  34  to  36 
per  cent;  dried  distillers'  grains,  32  per  cent;  malt  sprouts  and 
dried  brewers'  grains,  26  per  cent. 

Coarse  Feeds. — Pea  hay,  22.9  per  cent ;  vetch  and  sweet  clover,  18 
per  cent;  alfalfa  hay,  white  and  crimson  clover,  15  per  cent. 

As  examples  of  low-protein  feeds  may  be  given : 

Concentrates. — Cereal  grains,  10  to  12  per  cent;  dried  beet  pulp, 
and  corn  and  cob  meal,  8  to  9  per  cent;  rice,  7.4  per  cent. 

Coarse  Feeds. — Timothy  hay,  5.9  per  cent;  hay  from  mixed 
grasses  and  Hungarian  grass,  6  to  8  per  cent;  barley  hay  and  oat 
hay,  8  to  9  per  cent;  straw  from  the  cereals,  3  to  4  per  cent;  corn 
stover,  1  to  2  per  cent;  corn  silage,  2.7  per  cent. 

Fats  are  organic  compounds  consisting  largely  of  mixtures  of 
fatty  acids,  combined  with  glycerine  (so-called  glycerides).  The 
more  common  fats  are  stearin,  palmitin,  and  olein.  The  last-men- 
tioned glyceride  is  liquid  at  ordinary  temperatures,  and,  if  present  in 
large  quantities,  renders  the  mixed  fat  liquid  or  very  soft.  Lineoleic 
and  linolenic  acids  are  also  found  in  the  seeds  of  some  plants,  like 
flaxseed  and  soybeans ;  on  exposure  to  the  air  in  a  thin  layer,  they 
take  up  oxygen  and  "  set,"  t.e./they  dry  and  harden.  This  difference 


12 


PRINCIPLES  OF  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 


in  the  behavior  on  exposure  to  the  air  is  characteristic  of  drying  and 
non-drying  oils. 

Some  seeds  contain  large  proportions  of  fat,  while  others,  e.g., 
some  of  the  cereals,  are  low  in  fat  (oil)  (Fig.  3).  The  coarse  feeds 
contain  other  materials  than  fat  which  are  soluble  in  ether,  the 
solvent  for  fat  used  in  chemical  analysis,  viz.,  chlorophyl  and  various 
resinous  substances.  The  ether  extract,  in  the  case  of  these  feeds, 


10 


20 


25 


30 


35 


FLAXSETO 

SOYBEANS 

DRIED  DISTILLERS'  GRAINS 

COTTON -SEED  MEAL 

UNSEED  MEAL 

CORN 

OATS 

WHEAT  BRAN 

GLUTEN  FEED 

RYE 

BARLEY 

CANADA  PEAS 

MANGELS 

POTATOES 

SKIM  MILK 


FIG.  3. — Fats  in  common  feeding  stuffs,  in  per  cent. 

is,  therefore,  not  as  pure  fat  as  that  from  concentrated  feeds.  The 
following  figures  show  the  average  percentages  of  fat  present  in 
various  feeds: 


Concentrates  Per  cent 

Rice    0.4 

Wheat,  barley,  buckwheat  1.8  to  2.2 

Indian  corn  and  oats. .  .  .  5.0  to  5.4 

Soybeans 17.2 

Flaxseed    33.7 

Cotton  seed    .  36.6 


Coarse  feeds  Per  cent 

Soiling  crops     0.3  to  2.1 

Hays     1.7  to  3.6 

Straws    1.2  to  2.3 

Roots    0.1  to  0.4 

Corn  silage 0.9 


Fat  contains  more  carbon  and  less  hydrogen  than  the  group 
known  as  carbohydrates,  viz.,  on  the  average, 

Carbon,  76  per  cent. 
Hydrogen,  12  per  cent. 
Oxygen,  11.5  per  cent. 

They,  therefore,  furnish  more  energy  on  combustion  and  are 
more  valuable  as  heat-producing  substances  than  are  the  carbo- 
hydrates (for  which  see  p.  13). 


THE  COMPOSITION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS  13 

Nitrogen-free  extract  is  a  general  name  for  all  non-nitrogenous 
organic  substances  in  plants  and  plant  materials  besides  fat  and 
fiber.  It  includes  a  large  number  of  substances  of  different  proper- 
ties and  value  for  feeding  purposes,  such  as  starch,  sugar,  pentosans, 
pectin,  organic  acids,  and  other  compounds  that  are  present  in 
plants  in  small  amounts  and  are  of  minor  importance.  The  name 
"  nitrogen-free  extract "  is  in  reality  a  misnomer,  as  but  few  of  the 
substances  included  under  this  group  name  are  soluble  in  water  or 
other  liquids ;  it  has  come  into  general  use,  however,  since  the  early 
days  of  agricultural  chemical  analysis,  and  no  better  name  for  this 
group  of  substances  has  so  far  been  suggested. 

Carbohydrates. — The  nitrogen-free  extract  and  fiber  form  the 
group  called  carbohydrates.  These  include  substances  widely  dis- 
tributed in  plants  and  of  the  greatest  importance  to  the  feeder. 
They  are,  in  general,  characterized  by  the  fact  that  they  contain  the 
elements  carbon,  oxygen,  and  hydrogen,  the  latter  two  being  present 
in  the  same  ratio  as  in  water,  one  molecule  of  which  contains  two 
atoms  of  hydrogen  and  one  atom  of  oxygen  (H20).  The  more  im- 
portant substances  of  this  group  are  briefly  considered  below. 

Starch  is  one  of  the  first  organic  substances  formed  in  the  living 
plant  from  the  carbon-dioxide  of  the  air  and  water.  It  is  changed  to 
sugar  in  the  transfer  of  carbohydrates  from  one  part  of  the  plant 
to  another,  and  accumulates  as  such  in  large  quantities  as  reserve 
material  in  some  plants,  as  the  beet  root  and  sugar  cane.  In  others 
it  is  changed  into  oil  or  fat,  as  in  the  so-called  oil-bearing  seeds, 
flax,  sunflower,  castor  bean,  etc.  In  still  others,  which  most  fre- 
quently happens,  there  is  an  accumulation  of  starch  in  the  seeds, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  cereals  and  legumes. 

On  boiling  with  dilute  acid  or  through  the  action  of  diastatic 
ferments  ( diastase,  ptyalin,  etc. ) ,  starch  is  changed  to  sugar.  This 
process  forms  the  basis  for  the  manufacture  of  corn  or  glucose  syrup 
from  Indian  corn. 

The  starch  of  many  plants  can  be  identified  by  their  characteris- 
tic microscopic  structure,  but  from  the  feeder's  point  of  view  there  is 
no  difference  in  the  value  of  starch  from  different  sources. 

The  average  percentages  of  starch  found  in  some  plants  are  as 
follows : 

Eice,  79;  corn,  71;  wheat,  69;  rye,  67;  barley,  65;  potatoes,  63; 
pats,  53;  beans  and  peas,  39.  Starch  is  found  only  in  small 
amounts  in  coarse  feeds  or  in  stems  and  leaves  of  plants. 


14  PRINCIPLES  OF  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 

When  subjected  to  ultimate  chemical  analysis,  the  percentage 
composition  of  starch  is  shown  to  be  as  follows : 

44.4  per  cent  carbon, 

6.2  per  cent  hydrogen, 
49.4  per  cent  oxygen. 

Sugar  is  found  in  many  farm  crops  during  the  immature  stage 
of  the  plant,  but,  as  a  rule,  it  is  changed  back  to  starch  in  the  mature 
plant.  There  are  a  number  of  different  sugars  found  in  plant 
materials,  classified  as  mono-,  di,-  or  poly-saccharides. 

The  following  statement  shows  the  more  important  sugars  in 
each  of  these  classes: 

a.  Mono-saccharides. — Dextrose  (or  glucose),  levulose  (or  fructose), 
and  galactose.  They  occur  in  unripe  plants  and  in  fruits.  Like  other 
carbohydrates,  they  are  composed  of  carbon,  oxygen,  and  hydrogen,  with 
six  atoms  of  carbon  in  the  molecule;  hence  are  also  called  hexoses. 

6.  Di-saccharides. — Sucrose  (cane-sugar),  maltose  (malt-sugar),  and 
lactose  (milk-sugar).  These  contain  twelve  atoms  of  carbon  in  the  mole- 
cule, combined  with  a  corresponding  number  of  atoms  of  oxygen  and  hydro- 
gen (p.  13).  Sucrose  is  found  in  large  quantities  in  sugar  beets  and  sugar 
cane;  when  ripe  both  of  these  plants  contain  12  to  18  per  cent  of  this  sugar, 
according  to  the  character  of  the  seed  used,  method  of  cultivation,  season, 
soil,  etc.  These  crops  are  the  two  great  sugar  plants  of  the  world,  all  other 
sources  of  sugar,  like  sugar  maple,  sorghum,  etc.,  being  of  minor  importance. 

c.  Poly-saccharides  or  amyloses,  containing  a  multiple  of  six  carbon 
atoms  in  the  molecule.  To  these  belong  starch,  dextrine,  cellulose,  and 
glycogen.  The  substances  in  both  this  and  the  preceding  group  are  readily 
changed  into  mono-saccharides  (glucose)  through  hydrolysis  (boiling  with 
dilute  acids),  or  through  the  action  of  ferments,  as  already  stated  under 
starch. 

The  pentosans  and  pentoses  stand  close  to  starch  and  sugar, 
respectively,  being  the  corresponding  compounds  with  only  five 
atoms  of  carbon  in  the  molecule.  The  pentosans  are  readily  changed 
to  pentoses  on  boiling  with  acids.  They  have  an  important  nutri- 
tive value,  almost  equal  to  that  of  starch,  and  well  merit  the  atten- 
tion which  they  have  received  from  chemists  during  late  years.  The 
pentosans  are  widely  distributed  in  plants,  and  make  up  a  consider- 
able proportion  of  the  nitrogen-free  extract  of  many  plants.  Hay 
from  grasses  contains  about  20  per  cent  of  pentosans;  gluten  feed. 
17  per  cent;  dried  brewers'  grains  and  wheat  bran,  24  per  cent; 
clover,  10  per  cent;  cereal  straw,  22  per  cent;  oil  meal  and  dried 
distillers'  grains,  13  per  cent. 

The  best  known  substances  of  this  group  are  araban,  found  in 
beet  pulp,  cherrygum,  etc.,  and  xylan  or  wood  gum,  found  in  wood 
and  straw. 


THE  COMPOSITION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 


15 


The  pectin  bodies  occur  especially  in  unripe  fruits ;  these  sub- 
stances are  responsible  for  the  jellying  of  fruit  juices,  which  de- 
pends upon  pectin  taking  up  water  during  the  boiling  of  the  fruit, 
gelatinous  substances  being  formed  known  as  pectoses  or  pectic 
acids.  The  mucilaginous  substances  of  flaxseed  and  seeds  or  roots 
of  some  other  plants  belong  to  this  group ;  these  substances  do  not, 
however,  possess  the  importance  that  is  attached  to  the  preceding 
three  groups  of  compounds. 

Fiber  (called  crude  fiber  or  woody  fiber  by  some  authors) 
makes  up  the  cell  walls  of  the  plants  and  is  largely  composed  of 
cellulose.  So-called  incrusting  substances  (lignin  and  cutin)  are 
always  present,  especially  in  tough,  woody  plant  materials,  like 


10         15        20        25         30        35        40        45 


COTTON-SEED  HULLS 

'BUCKWHEAT  HULLS 

OAT  STRAW 

OAT  HULLS 

CORN  COBS 

TIMOTHY  HAY 

CLOVER  HAY 

CORN  STALKS 

DRIED  BREWERS'  GRAINS 

QAT5 

WHEAT  BRAN 

GLUTEN    FEED 

WHEAT  MIDDLINGS 

BARLEY 

INDIAN  CORN 


50 


FIG.  4. — Fiber  in  plant  materials,  in  per  cent. 


husk,  hulls,  seed-coats,  overripe  hay  and  straw,  which  contain  con- 
siderable proportions  of  these  substances  in  the  fiber.  Fiber  is  more 
resistant  to  the  action  of  solvents  and  digestive  fluids  than  other 
groups  of  plant  materials.  It  is  attacked  by  bacteria  and  possibly 
by  special  ferments  in  the  intestinal  tract  of  herbivorous  animals. 
By  this  decomposition  marsh  gas  and  other  gases  are  formed,  and 
also  organic  acids,  like  acetic  and  butyric  acids.  Since  straw  is  very 
high  in  fiber,  and  ruminants,  like  steers,  sheep,  and  goats,  can  sub- 
sist for  a  long  time  on  coarse  straw  only,  we  are  justified  in  con- 
cluding that  this  substance  possesses  a  certain  nutritive  value, 
although  authorities  differ  as  to  how  much  value  shall  be  ascribed 
to  the  digestible  portion  of  cellulose. 

Plants  increase  in  their  contents  of  fiber  toward  maturity  as  the 


16  PRINCIPLES  OF  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 

stems  become  coarse  and  tough;  hence  their  digestibility  decreases 
during  the  latter  stages  of  plant  growth  (p.  58).  The  following 
approximate  amounts  of  fiber  are  found  in  different  classes  of 
feeding  stuffs: 

Buckwheat  hulls,  buckwheat  straw,  and  flax  shives,  45  per  cent; 
straw  of  cereals,  40  per  cent ;  hay  from  different  grasses  or  legumes, 
20  to  35  per  cent ;  cereals,  0.2  per  cent  (rice)  to  10.8  per  cent  (oats)  ; 
roots  and  tubers,  0.4  to  2.2  per  cent;  concentrated  feeds,  0.9  to  30 
per  cent,  generally,  however,  less  than  20  per  cent  (Fig.  4). 

A  high  fiber  content  indicates  that  a  feed  is  of  relatively  low 
value  for  stock  feeding,  and  vice  versa.  The  figures  for  this  com- 
ponent, with  those  for  protein  and  fat,  are,  therefore,  of  the  great- 
est assistance  to  feed  buyers  in  judging  the  value  of  manufactured 
and  other  feeds. 

Chemical  Analyses  of  Feeding  Stuffs. — The  following  com- 
ponents are  determined  by  the  chemist  in  the  ordinary  analysis  of 
feeding  stuffs:  Water  (often  called  moisture),  protein,  fat,  fiber, 
and  ash;  the  difference  between  100  and  the  sum  of  percentages 
of  these  various  components  obtained  in  the  analysis  is  known  as 
nitrogen-free  extract  (starch,  sugar,  pentosans,  organic  acids,  etc.). 

Methods  of  Chemical  Analysis. — The  outline  of  the  common  method 
adopted  in  chemical  laboratories  in  the  analysis  of  feeding  stuffs  given  below 
will  be  of  value  to  students  by  enabling  them  to  better  understand  data 
and  discussions  relating  to  the  chemical  composition  of  feeding  stuffs 
(Fig.  5). 

a.  Moisture  (water)  is  determined  by  heating  a  small  portion  (gener- 
ally 2  grams)2  of  the  carefully-sampled  and  finely-divided  feeding  stuff 
in  a  steam-bath  or  water  oven  at  100°  C.  for  two  to  five  hours,  till  it  no 
longer  loses  weight.  After  cooling  in  a  desiccator,  it  is  weighed  carefully 
on  a  chemical  balance  and  the  percentage  loss  calculated  on  the  original 
weight  is  taken  to  represent  moisture.  Volatile  organic  substances  some- 
times present  in  minute  amounts  in  plant  materials  would  also  be  in- 
cluded in  this  loss.  In  the  case  of  some  feeding  stuffs  containing  fats  that 
take  up  oxygen,  as  corn,  flaxseed,  and  other  oil-bearing  seeds,  the  material 
must  be  heated  in  a  current  of  hydrogen  or  other  inert  gas,  so  as  to 
prevent  oxidation  and  a  resulting  increase  in  weight  during  the  drying, 
which  would  give  too  low  a  moisture  content. 

6.  Fat. — The  residue  from  the  preceding  determination  is  extracted 
with  anhydrous  sulfuric  ether  in  a  suitable  apparatus  for  a  considerable 
period  of  time,  generally  16  hours,  till  the  fat  has  been  completely  dissolved. 
The  ether  is  distilled  off  and  the  residue  dried  at  100  °  C.  and  weighed. 
As  previously  stated,  the  ether  extract,  in  the  case  of  roughage  and  some 
other  feeds,  contains  considerable  impurities,  as  chlorophyl,  wax,  and 
resins. 

c.  Protein  is  obtained  by  multiplying  the  total  nitrogen  by  6.25  (see 
p.  9),  the  nitrogen  being  determined  by  the  Kjeldahl  method,  so  called 
after  the  inventor,  a  Danish  chemist.  In  this  method  a  small  portion  of 
the  feed  (generally  1  gram)  is  heated  with  20  c.c.  sulfuric  acid  till  the 

2T1?of  an  ounce.     1  ounce  equals  28.35  grams. 


THE  COMPOSITION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 


17 


organic  matter  has  been  completely  decomposed  and  the  nitrogen  has  been 
changed  into  ammonium  sulfate.  This  is  dissolved  in  distilled  water, 
and  50  c.c.  of  a  concentrated  soda  solution  are  added,  the  flask  being 
connected  with  a  distillation  apparatus  and  heat  applied.  A  certain 
quantity  of  standard  hydrochloric  acid  solution,  more  than  sufficient  to 
neutralize  the  ammonia  obtained  in  the  oxidation  of  the  protein,  has  been 
previously  added  in  the  receiving  flask,  and  the  distillation  is  now  con- 
tinued till  all  ammonia  has  been  distilled  over.  The  excess  of  acid  in  the 
receiving  flask  is  then  accurately  titrated  back  (neutralized),  and  from  the 
volume  of  acid  used  the  amount  of  nitrogen  in  the  sample  is  obtained. 
This  is  calculated  in  percentage  of  the  amount  of  sample  weighed  out, 
and  by  multiplying  by  6.25  the  percentage  of  protein  contained  in  the 
sample  is  obtained. 


FIG.  5. — View  of  a  chemical  laboratory  for  analysis  of  feeding  stuffs  and  other  agricultural 
products.     (Wisconsin  Station.) 

d.  Fiber  is  determined  in  the  residue  from  the  ether  extract  by  boiling 
first  with  200  c.c.  of  a  1.25  per  cent   sulfuric  acid  solution  and  then  with 
200  c.c.  of  a  soda  solution  of  the  same  strength.    After  filtering,  drying,  and 
weighing,  the  residue  is  ignited,  and  the  loss  in  weight,  calculated  on  the 
amount  of  the   sample   originally  weighed   out,   shows  the  percentage  of 
fiber  in  the  feed.     This  method,  which  is  known  as  the  Weende  method, 
gives  pure  cellulose  or  woody  fiber,  with  some  impurities  like  pentosans, 
incrusting  substances   (lignin,  cutin),  and  certain  insoluble  proteins.     The 
method  does  not  give  very  satisfactory  results,  and  is  only  used  for  want 
of  some  better  method  of  arriving  at  the  amount  of  fiber  present  in  feeding 
stuffs. 

e.  Ash  or  mineral  matter  is  obtained  by  igniting  at  a  low  red  heat  2 
grams  of  the  sample  and  weighing  the  residue  after   cooling  in  a  desic- 
cator.   The  crude  ash  thus  obtained  generally  contains  free  carbon,  as  well 
as  carbonates  and  sulfates  formed  by  oxidation  of  organic  components  of 
plant  materials.     It  is  sometimes  purified,  and  the  amount  thus  found  is 
given  as  pure  ash. 

2 


18  PRINCIPLES  OF  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 

f.  Nitrogen-free  extract  is  obtained  by  subtracting  the  sum  of  the 
percentages  of  the  preceding  components  from  100.  It  includes  chiefly 
starch,  sugar,  pentosans,  and  organic  acids  (p.  13).  The  amounts  of  the 
first  three  components  are  also  sometimes  determined  separately  by  well- 
known  methods  of  analysis  of  interest  mainly  to  chemists.3 

The  example  given  below  will  show  the  customary  form  of  re- 
porting analyses  of  feeding  stuffs. 

Chemical  Analysis  of  Timothy  Hay 

Per  cent 

Moisture 13.2 

Crude  protein    5.9 

Fat    2.5 

Fiber   29.0 

Nitrogen-free  extract 45.0 

Ash    .  4.4 


100.0 
QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  the  elements  essential  to  plant  growth;    also  some  others  that 

are  always  present  in  plants. 

2.  What  are  the  groups  of  plant  components  determined  in  ordinary  chemical 

analyses? 

3.  Give  the  main  characteristics  of  each  one  of  these  components. 

4.  What  is  protein,  nitrogen-free  extract,  carbohydrates? 

5.  State  the  difference  in  the  chemical  composition  of  these  substances. 

6.  Give  the  ordinary  form  of  reporting  a  chemical  analysis  of  a  feeding 

stuff. 

3  For  complete  directions  for  making  chemical  analyses  of  feeding 
stuffs  and  other  agricultural  products,  see  Official  and  Provisional  Methods 
of  Analysis,  Association  of  Official  Agricultural  Chemists,  Bureau  of 
Chemistry,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bulletin  107  (Revised), 
Washington,  1912. 


CHAPTER  II 
THE  COMPOSITION  OF  ANIMALS 

WE  find,  in  general,  similar  substances  in  the  animal  body  as  in 
plants,  but  the  relation  between  the  different  groups  of  components 
differs,  and  some  substances  found  in  animals  do  not  exist  in  plants, 
or  differ  in  their  properties  from  the  corresponding  plant  constit- 
uents. Animals  are  composed  of  water,  protein  bodies,  fat  and 
mineral  matter ;  the  protein,  or  protein  and  fat,  make  up  the  largest 
proportions  of  the  dry  matter  of  animals,  while  carbohydrates  are 
present  in  only  small  amounts.  We  have  seen  that  the  dry  matter  of 
plants,  on  the  other  hand,  is  largely  composed  of  carbohydrates, 
and  that  protein  is,  as  a  rule,  present  in  relatively  small  amounts. 

The  composition  of  different  farm  animals  varies  according 
to  their  body  condition,  especially  the  amount  of  fat  which  they 
carry.  The  classic  experiments  of  Lawes  and  Gilbert  which  were 
conducted  about  1850  at  the  Rothamsted  Experiment  Station,  Eng- 
land, furnished  the  first  accurate  information  on  this  point;  their 
findings  have  been  corroborated  during  later  years  by'investigations 
at  the  Maine  and  Missouri  Experiment  Stations  and  elsewhere. 
The  following  summary  table  shows  the  percentage  composition  of 
live  animals,  less  contents  of  stomach  and  intestines : 

Composition  of  Live  Animals,  in  Per  Cent.     (Lawes  and  Gilbert.) 


Water 

Fat 

Protein 

Ash 

Fat  calf 

646 

14.1 

165 

48 

Steer  well  fed 

662 

87 

192 

59 

half  fat 

590 

17  5 

183 

52 

fat 

495 

30.5 

15.6 

4.4 

Sheep  lean 

67.5 

10.2 

18.3 

40 

well  fed 

63.2 

15.5 

17.4 

39 

half  fed                    

58.9 

21.3 

16.0 

3.8 

fat                     

»  50.9 

31.9  . 

13.9 

3.3 

very  fat     

43.3 

41.4 

12.2 

3.1 

Swine  well  fed  

~~  57.9 

24.2 

15.0 

2.9 

fat 

'      43.9 

42.3 

11.9 

1.9 

The  figures  given  in^the  table  show  that  the  fatter  an  animal  is, 
the  less  water,  proteirfj*  and"  ^sh  will  it  contain ;  also,  that  the  per- 
centage of  fat  in  the  body  of -a  steer  may  range  from  at  least  8  to  30 
per  cent,  that  in  a  sheep  from  10  to  41  per  cent,  and  that  in  a  hog 

19 


20 


PRINCIPLES  OF  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 


from  24  to  42  per  cent.  As  these  percentages  increase,  those  for  the 
other  components  decrease ;  e.g.,  the  water  contents  in  the  body  of  a 
steer  decrease  from  66  to  49  per  cent,  in  sheep  from  67  to  43  per 
cent,  and  in  swine  from  58  to  44  per  cent.  In  all  cases  except 
where  the  animals  are  very  fat,  their  bodies  consist  of  more  than 
one-half  water;  the  body  of  a  lean  animal  or  a  fat  calf  (as  of  all 
young  animals)  is  made  up  of  nearly  two-thirds  water.  As  the 
animal  grows  toward  maturity,  and  especially  during  fattening,  the 
proportion  of  water  in  its  body  tissue  becomes  generally  smaller, 
and  that  of  fat  increases.  This  is  because  the  increase  in  body 


10 


20        50       40        50        60       70 


90        100 


STEER,  WELL  FED 
HALF  FAT 
FAT 

FAT  CALF 

SHEEP,  LEAN 

WELL  FED 
HALF  FAT 
FAT 
VERY  FAT 

SWINE,  WELL  FED 
FAT 


FAT 
PROTEIN 


ASH 
WATER 


Fia.  6.  —  Composition  of  live  animals  less  contents  of  stomach  and  intestines,  in  per  cent. 

weight  of  animals  with  increasing  age  or  during  fattening  is  com- 
posed of  more  dry  matter  and  less  water  than  when  the  animal  is 
young  or  has  not  been  fattened,  and  not  because  the  fat  replaces  the 
water  in  the  body  tissues  (Fig.  6). 

The  composition  of  the  increase  of  live  weight  in  fattening 
has  been  calculated  by  Lawes  and  Gilbert  for  steers,  sheep,  and  hogs. 
They  found  that  if  a  steer,  for  example,  gained  100  pounds  during 
fattening,  these  100  pounds  would  be  composed,  on  the  average,  as 
follows  : 

Water,  23.8  pounds,  and  total  dry  matter,  76.2  pounds,  made  up  of: 

Fat,         67.8  pounds, 

Protein,    7.3  pounds, 

Ash,  1.1  pounds. 

While  lean  animals  consist  of  nearly  two-thirds  water  and  less 
than  one-tenth  fat,  the  increase  in  body  substance  during  fattening 


THE  COMPOSITION  OF  ANIMALS  21 

is  over  two-thirds  fat  and  less  than  one-fourth  water,  and  protein 
makes  up  only  about  7  per  cent  of  the  increase.  It  is  easy  to  under- 
stand, in  view  of  these  figures,  why  fat  and  older  animals  can  com- 
mand higher  prices  than  young  or  lean  animals,  and  why  the  per- 
centage dressed  weight  of  cattle,  for  example,  is  higher  in  the  case 
of  the  former  kind  of  animals  than  with  the  latter.1 

Components  of  the  Animal  Body. — We  shall  now  briefly  con- 
sider the  chemical  composition  and  main  characteristics  of  the 
various  groups  of  components  found  in  the  animal  body. 

Protein. — Protein  substances  are  found  in  all  parts  of  the  ani- 
mal body,  in  the  blood,  lymph,  muscles,  connective  tissues,  milk,  etc. 

The  blood  is  the  vehicle  by  which  the  digested  and  absorbed 
nutrients  are  distributed  throughout  the  body,  and  which  supplies 
its  different  parts  with  the  substances  necessary  for  growth  and 
the  exercise  of  vital  functions.  Blood  makes  up  about  8  per  cent 
of  the  body  weight  of  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep,  and  less  than 
5  per  cent  of  that  of  the  pig.  It  is  composed  of  a  liquid  portion 
called  plasma,  in  which  the  blood-cells  or  corpuscles  are  suspended. 
The  plasma  makes  up  about  two-thirds  of  the  blood;  it  contains 
three  protein  substances  in  solution,  viz.,  fibrinogen,  serum  globulin, 
and  serum  albumen.  On  clotting  of  the  blood  or  when  it  is  whipped, 
the  fibrinogen  is  changed,  through  a  special  ferment  called  thrombin, 
into  fibrin,  which  entangles  the  blood-corpuscles  and  holds  them  in 
a  solid  clot.  The  liquid  that  separates  from  clotted  blood  on  stand- 
ing is  called  blood-serum. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  blood-corpuscles,  red  and  white.  The 
red  corpuscles  are  minute,  round  discs,  that  vary  in  shape  and  size 
in  different  animals.  They  are  composed  of  a  spongy  albuminoid 
substance  which  holds  in  its  meshes  the  red  coloring  matter  called 
haemoglobin.  This  is  a  very  complex  protein  substance  and  con- 
tains about  one-half  of  one  per  cent  of  iron,  in  addition  to  the  ordi- 
nary components  of  protein.  Haemoglobin  is  a  dark,  purplish  red, 
crystalline  substance  which  has  great  affinity  for  oxygen.  It  absorbs 
oxygen  in  the  lungs,  forming  oxyhaemoglobin ;  this  again  readily 
gives  up  its  oxygen  in  the  cells  of  the  different  body  tissues  when 
the  oxidation  (combustion)  of  nutrients  takes  place.  The  chemical 
changes  that  occur  in  the  cells  and  are  necessary  for  the  continu- 
ance of  life  and  for  growth  are  dependent  on  this  supply  of  oxygen 
and  on  the  nutrients  which  are  carried  to  the  different  parts  of  the 
body  by  the  blood. 

*See  live  weight  and  dressed  weight  of  steers  of  different  breeds  and 
ages,  Woll,  "Handbook  for  Farmers  and  Dairymen,"  6th  ed.,  p.  206. 


22  PRINCIPLES  OF  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 

The  white  blood-corpuscles  (so-called  leucocytes)  are  of  larger 
size  than  the  red  ones,  and  are  found  in  only  small  numbers  com- 
pared with  red  corpuscles.  The  leucocytes  have  the  power  of  going 
through  the  walls  of  the  capillaries  (p.  31),  and  can  pass  with  the 
lymph  in  between  the  cells  of  the  tissues.  In  case  some  part  of  the 
body  is  injured  or  diseased,  they  collect  there  in  large  numbers,  and 
on  breaking  down  form  pus.  Their  main  function  appears  to  be  to 
destroy  disease  germs. 

The  muscular  tissues  in  animals  consist  approximately  of  75  per 
cent  water,  20  per  cent  protein,  largely  myosinogen  (myosin),  be- 
longing to  the  globulin  group  3  per  cent  fat,  less  than  1  per  cent 
carbohydrates  (glycogen  and  dextrose),  0.2  per  cent  nitrogenous 
waste  products  (so-called  extractives),  and  1.0  to  1.5  per  cent  salts. 
The  extractives  are  mainly  creatin,  with  xanthine,  uric  acid,  urea, 
and  other  waste  products  that  are  present  in  small  quantities.  The 
mineral  matter  in  the  muscle  consists  largely  of  potassium  phos- 
phates ;  small  amounts  of  salts  of  sodium,  calcium,  magnesium,  and 
iron  are  also  present. 

Connective  tissues  form  another  class  of  nitrogenous  organic 
substances  in  the  animal  body.  To  this  group  belong  tendons,  liga- 
ments, cartilage,  skin,  horns,  hoofs,  etc.  They  are  all  insoluble  in 
water  or  salt  solutions,  and  are  only  slightly  attacked  by  acids  or 
alkalies.  Among  the  substances  of  this  group  that  have  been 
identified  only  two  need  be  mentioned  here,  collagen  and  keratin. 
The  former  is  the  main  organic  component  of  cartilage  and  bone, 
and  also  makes  up  a  large  proportion  of  tendons  and  ligaments. 
On  long  boiling  with  water,  collagen  is  dissolved  and  forms  gelatin, 
which  solidifies  on  cooling.  Keratin  is  the  main  component  of 
skin,  hoofs,  horns,  wool,  hair,  and  feathers,  all  substances  that  offer 
the  greatest  resistance  to  the  action  of  solvents.  Keratin  contains 
4  to  5  per  cent  sulfur  in  addition  to  the  elements  ordinarily  found 
in  protein  compounds.  On  treatment  with  steam  under  pressure 
it  is  rendered  soluble  and  forms  glue.  The  manufacture  of  this 
material  is  an  important  side-line  of  the  large  packing  houses. 

Milk  contains  two  important  protein  substances,  casein  and 
albumen.  Casein  belongs  to  the  so-called  nucleoproteins,  combina- 
tions of  albumen  and  phosphoric  acid.  It  is  suspended  in  a  colloidal 
state  in  milk,  and  is  not  in  perfect  solution,  hence  may  be  separated 
out  by  means  of  centrifugal  force.  On  addition  of  an  acid  to  the 
milk,  or  through  the  action  of  enzymes,  like  rennin  or  pepsin, 
casein  is  precipitated,  and  the  milk  "  curdles."  The  manufacture 
of  cheese  from  milk  depends  on  this  property  of  casein.  Milk 


THE  COMPOSITION  OF  ANIMALS  23 

albumen  is  soluble  in  water,  and,  like  other  albumens,  is  coagulated 
on  heating  above  80°  C.  (176°  F.).  Milk  contains  about  3.2  per 
cent  casein  and  albumen,  the  content  ranging  between  2.5  per  cent 
and  4.6  per  cent,  according  to  the  quality  of  the  milk;  about  80  per 
cent  of  the  total  milk  proteins  is  composed  of  casein;  the  rest  is 
largely  albumen. 

Fats  may  be  present  in  animals  as  body  fat,  in  the  marrow  of 
bones,  and  in  milk.  They  occur  in  the  former  two  as  oval  or  round 
cells  that  are  composed  of  a  nitrogenous  membrane  filled  with  fluid 
fat  in  live  animals.  The  body  fat  is  similar  in  composition  to  the 
vegetable  fats,  being  largely  composed  of  glycerides  of  the  fatty 
acids,  stearic,  palmitic,  and  oleic  acids,  but  the  proportions  of  the 
different  glycerides  vary  from  that  of  plant  fats,  and  there  are  also 
characteristic  components  of  animal  fat  which  are  not  found  in 
the  vegetable  kingdom.  Milk  fat  is  composed  of  the  three  glycerides 
mentioned  and,  in  addition,  of  about  8  per  cent  of  glycerides  of 
volatile  fatty  acids  (mainly  butyric  acid),  which  give  the  char- 
acteristic fine  flavor  to  fresh  butter  and,  on  decomposition,  a  ran- 
cid flavor  to  old  butter.  On  account  of  the  presence  of  these 
volatile  fatty  acids  in  butter  it  is  possible  to  distinguish,  by  means 
of  chemical  analysis,  between  natural  pure  butter  and  artificial 
or  adulterated  butter. 

Body  fat  may  be  deposited  in  animals  receiving  an  abundant 
supply  of  feed;  it  is  stored  either  between  the  layers  of  muscular 
tissue,  about  the  internal  organs,  or  directly  beneath  the  skin,  espe- 
cially on  the  backs  of  animals.  The  body  fat  makes  a  reserve  ma- 
terial that  the  animal  can  draw  upon  in  time  of  a  scarcity  of  feed. 
Through  systematic  liberal  feeding  and  other  favorable  conditions 
the  faculty  to  lay  on  body  fat  has  been  greatly  developed  in  fatten- 
ing animals,  especially  pigs.  Adipose  tissue  of  pigs  consists  of  about 
92  per  cent  of  pure  fat,  the  balance  being  6.4  per  cent  water  and 
1.35  per  cent  nitrogenous  substances  (membrane). 

Lipoids  form  a  group  of  bodies  that  stand  close  to  the  fats. 
They  are  mixed  with  fats  in  various  tissues  and  organs  of  the  body. 
Only  two  of  these  substances  will  be  mentioned  here,  lecithin  and 
cholesterin.  The  former  consists  of  glycerin  and  stearic  and 
phosphoric  acids,  with  a  nitrogenous  base  known  as  cholin.  It  is 
found  in  the  nerve  tissues,  cellular  structures,  and  in  the  bile. 
Cholesterin  is  likewise  found  in  the  nerve  tissues  and  cells  of  the 
body,  and  also  in  the  liver,  brain,  eggs,  and  in  wool  fat.  It  is 
composed  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen,  and  does  not  contain 
either  nitrogen  or  phosphorus.  In  spite  of  relatively  small  quanti- 


24  PRINCIPLES  OF  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 

ties,  in  which  the  lipoids  occur  in  the  animal  body,  they  appear  to  be 
of  the  greatest  importance  in  the  nutrition  of  animals,  especially 
in  the  case  of  growing  animals. 

Ash  Materials. — The  animal  body  contains  the  same  ash  ma- 
terials as  are  found  in  plants,  and  it  holds  true,  as  a  general  proposi- 
tion, that  the  elements  which  are  essential  to  the  life  of  plants  are 
also  essential  to  animal  life.  In  the  case  of  two  elements,  sodium 
and  chlorin,  the  evidence  at  hand  is  not  sufficient  to  show  that 
they  are  absolutely  essential  to  plants,  but,  since  they  are  present 
in  all  soils,  plants  always  contain  an  ample  supply  of  both  elements. 
It  is  definitely  known,  however,  that  both  sodium  and  chlorin  are 
essential  to  the  growth  of  animals  and  to  the  continued  exercise 
of  their  vital  functions.  We  shall  see  that  gastric  juice,  one  of  the 
digestive  fluids  of  the  body,  contains  free  hydrochloric  acid;  this 
acid  comes  from  the  sodium  chloride  (common  salt)  found  in  the 
feed  of  the  animals  or  eaten  directly  by  them.  Animals  fed  largely 
coarse  feeds  receive  a  sufficient  amount  of  salt  in  the  feed  to  supply 
their  wants,  but  when  fed  much  grain  or  other  concentrates  low  in 
mineral  matter,  they  need  more  salt  than  that  contained  in  the 
feed;  all  farm  animals  relish  salt  greatly,  and  the  practice  of 
"  salting  "  livestock  has,  therefore,  become  quite  general. 

Salt  improves  the  appetite  of  the  animals  and  increases  the  flow 
of  digestive  juices;  it  promotes  and  regulates  digestion  and  should, 
therefore,  be  furnished  in  ample  amounts.  In  the  case  of  milch 
cows  at  least,  a  supply  of  salt  in  addition  to  that  in  the  feed  is 
essential  to  their  continued  health,  both  because  of  their  large  feed 
consumption,  especially  grain  feed,  and  because  of  the  amount  of 
chlorin  that  is  daily  removed  in  the  milk.  The  general  practice 
among  dairy  farmers  is  to  supply  about  an  ounce  of  salt  daily  per 
cow,  placing  it  before  them  in  the  mangers  or  giving  them  access 
to  salt  in  the  yard.  Unless  milch  cows  have  access  to  salt,  abnormal 
conditions  will  soon  appear  which  will  result  in  a  general  break- 
down after  a  period  varying  with  different  cows  from  a  month  to 
more  than  a  year.  The  gradual  reduction  in  vitality  of  the  animals 
which  is  brought  about  by  a  lack  of  salt,  as  shown  by  Babcock,  is 
evidenced  by  "loss  of  appetite,  a  generally  haggard  appearance, 
lusterless  eye,  a  rough  coat,  and  a  very  rapid  decline  in  both 
weight  and  yield  of  milk."  2 

Phosphate  of  Lime. — The  mineral  components  present  in  the 
animal  body  in  the  largest  quantities  are  lime  and  phosphoric  acid. 
They  make  up  the  skeleton  of  the  body  and  form  about  80  per 

2  Wisconsin  Report  22,  p.  154. 


THE  COMPOSITION  OF  ANIMALS  25 

cent  of  its  entire  ash  content.  In  the  case  of  suckling  or  young 
growing  animals  it  is  important  that  the  feed  shall  contain  a 
sufficient  amount  of  lime  and  phosphoric  acid.  A  deficiency  of 
these  components  in  the  feed  will  give  rise  to  serious  disorders  in 
the  bone  structure  of  the  young,  as  is  shown  in  the  case  of  pigs  fed 
wholly  or  largely  on  Indian  corn  (pp.  300-301).  Under  ordinary 
conditions,  when  mixed  rations  are  fed,  there  is  generally  little  dan- 
ger of  not  furnishing  enough  of  these  two  ingredients.  The  matter 
should,  however,  receive  attention  in  feeding  pregnant  or  nursing 
animals,  or  young  growing  animals,  and  heavy  feeding  of  materials 
low  in  calcium  or  phosphorus  should  be  avoided. 

Among  the  feeds  low  in  lime  (calcium)  may  be  mentioned: 
Straw  and  chaff,  the  cereals  and  their  by-products,  as  gluten  meal 
and  shorts,  malt  sprouts,  dried  brewers'  and  distillers'  grains,  roots, 
and  molasses.  Feeds  high  in  lime,  on  the  other  hand,  are:  Hay 
from  grasses  and  legumes,  and  many  leguminous  seeds.  Straw, 
distillery  feeds,  molasses,  mangels,  and  potatoes  are  deficient  in 
phosphoric  acid,  while  the  small  grains,  wheat  bran,  malt  sprouts, 
brewers'  grains,  and  oil  meal,  are  high  in  phosphoric  acid.  If  the 
rations  fed  are  rather  low  in  either  or  both  of  the  ash  materials 
mentioned,  the  deficiency  may  be  made  up  by  an  addition  to  the 
feed  of  small  amounts  of  bone  meal,  calcium  phosphate  or  floats 
(ground  phosphate  rock). 

Potassium  and  Iron. — Of  other  essential  mineral  elements  in 
the  animal  body,  we  shall  mention  only  potassium,  which  is  found 
especially  in  the  cell  walls,  muscles,  and  blood;  and  iron,  mainly 
found  in  the  red  coloring  matter  of  the  blood  (hemoglobin,  p.  21). 
There  is  no  danger  that  the  rations  fed  farm  stock  will  be  deficient 
in  these  or  other  physiologically  important  elements,  like  fluorin 
and  silicon,  since  only  very  small  amounts  of  them  are  required 
and  an  ample  supply  is  always  present  in  the  feeds. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  the  various  groups  of  substances  in  the  animal  body  and  describe 

their   main   properties. 

2.  How  much  water,  fat,  and  protein  are  contained  in  the  body  of  a  calf, 

a  lean  and  a  fat  steer,  a  fat  sheep,  and  a  fat  hog? 

3.  What  is  the  composition  of  the  increase  in  live  weight  during  fattening? 

4.  Name  the  different  forms  in  which  protein  occurs  in  the  animal  body. 

5.  What  is  haemoglobin? 

6.  What  are  leucocytes,  connective  tissues,  keratin? 

7.  What  protein  substances  are  found  in  the  milk? 

8.  In  what  forms  is  fat  found  in  the  animal  body?    What  are  the  lipoids? 

9.  What  are  the  main  mineral  substances  found  in  the  animal  body? 

10.  Give  the  office  of  common  salt  in  the  digestion  of  feeds  and  in  animal 
nutrition. 


CHAPTER  III 
THE  DIGESTION  OF  FEEDS 

THE  farm  animals  that  chew  their  feed  a  second  time  are  known 
as  ruminants.  Cattle,  sheep,  and  goats  belong  to  this  class.  The 
non-ruminants,  on  the  other  hand,  are  represented  among  the  farm 
animals  by  the  horse  and  the  pig.  The  two  kinds  of  animals  differ 
radically  in  the  anatomy  of  their  digestive  apparatus;  the  stomach 
of  the  ruminants  consists  of  four  divisions  or  sacs,  of  which  the 
first  three  are  mainly  reservoirs  for  softening  and  holding  the  feed 
till  it  is  returned  to  the  mouth  to  be  chewed  again,  while  the  fourth 
one  is  the  true  stomach,  where  a  digestive  fluid  is  secreted.  The 
non-ruminating  animals  have  only  one  stomach,  into  which  the 
feed  passes  directly  from  the  mouth  and  the  gullet  (oesophagus), 
and  is  acted  upon  by  the  digestive  fluid  secreted  there.  We  shall 
consider  separately  the  digestive  apparatus  of  ruminants  and  non- 
ruminants. 

The  digestive  apparatus  of  ruminants  consists,  as  already 
stated,  of  four  separate  compartments  that  are  connected  with  one 
another,  viz.: 

a.  The  rumen  or  paunch. 

&.  The  reticulum  or  honeycomb. 

c.  The  omasum  or  manyplies. 

d.  The  abomasum  or  the  true  stomach  (Fig.  7). 

The  first  three  stomachs  are  mainly  enlargements  of  the  ali- 
mentary canal  and  serve  as  reservoirs  for  the  feed  before  it  is 
chewed  the  second  time.  The  rumen  or  paunch  is  by  far  the 
largest  one  of  the  four  stomachs  and,  in  the  case  of  grown  cattle, 
holds  about  nine-tenths  of  the  total  capacity  of  them  all.  The 
abomasum,  or  fourth  stomach,  corresponds  to  the  single  stomach 
of  the  non-ruminants,  and,  like  this,  contains  a  digestive  fluid  which 
acts  upon  the  feed.  When  the  cow  swallows  her  feed,  which  is 
partly  chewed  and  well  mixed  with  saliva,  it  passes  down  the  gullet 
and  partly  into  the  paunch  through  a  slit  in  the  gullet,  partly  into 
the  second  stomach  (honeycomb).  It  remains  here  for  a  time 
and  is  softened  by  the  saliva  and  the  watery  secretions  of  the 
paunch  wall.  The  contents  of  the  paunch  are  given  a  churning 
motion  which  gradually  forces  it  toward  the  funnel-shaped  orifice  of 
the  gullet  through  compression  of  the  paunch  by  the  diaphragm 
26 


THE  DIGESTION  OF  FEEDS 


27 


and  the  abdominal  muscles.  One  portion  of  the  softened  mass  is 
pressed  at  a  time  and  conveyed  into  the  mouth  by  a  reverse,  so- 
called  peristaltic  motion  of  the  gullet.  In  the  mouth  it  is  chewed 
a  second  time  and  swallowed  again.  By  the  second  chewing  the 
cud  or  <e  bolus "  is  reduced  to  a  pasty  pulp,  and  it  now  passes 
directly  through  the  oesophagus  groove  into  the  third  stomach,  the 
manyplies,  without  opening  the  slit  in  the  gullet  leading  into  the 
paunch.  The  manyplies  has  numerous  hard,  fleshy  leaves,  between 


FIG.  7. — The  digestive  apparatus  of  ruminants  (a  full-grown  sheep):  A,  Rumen  or 
paunch;  B,  reticulum  or  honeycomb;  C,  omasum  or  manyplies;  D,  abomasum  or  rennet 
stomach  (fourth  stomach);  E,  oesophagus  or  gullet,  opening  into  first  and  second  stomachs; 
F,  opening  of  fourth  stomach  into  small  intestines;  G,  opening  of  second  stomach  into  third; 
H,  opening  of  third  stomach  into  fourth.  The  lines  indicate  the  course  of  the  feed  in  the 
stomachs.  (U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.) 

which  the  soft  mass  is  pressed,  allowing  the  liquid  portion  to  pass 
into  the  fourth  stomach,  and  the  balance  of  the  mass  is  likewise 
gradually  emptied  into  this  stomach. 

The  Non-ruminants. — In  the  case  of  the  non-ruminating  anir 
mals  the  feed  passes  directly  from  the  oesophagus  into  the  single 
stomach.  In  the  horse  this  has  two  compartments:  The  lining 
of  the  left  one  does  not  secrete  any  digestive  fluid,  but  the  action  of 
the  saliva  swallowed  with  the  feed  is  continued  here,  and  the  fer- 
ments found  in  the  feed  itself  (e.g.,  in  the  case  of  oats)  may  also 


f' 

28  PRINCIPLES  OF  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 

act  on  the  starch.  In  the  lining  of  the  right  side,  on  the  other 
hand,  there  are  numerous  glands  which  secrete  gastric  juice,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  fourth  stomach  of  ruminants.  From  this  point  on, 
the  digestion  of  the  feed  takes  place  in  essentially  the  same  manner 
in  non-ruminants  as  in  ruminants. 

The  Digestion  of  Feed. — The  various  digestive  fluids  which 
act  on  the  feed  during  its  passage  through  the  body  are  (1)  saliva, 
(2)  gastric  juice,  (3)  pancreatic  juice  and  the  bile,  and  (4) 
intestinal  juice. 

Saliva. — The  first  step  in  the  digestion  of  feed  occurs  in  the 
mouth.  When  an  animal  is  eating,  the  feed  is  crushed  and  ground 
by  the  teeth,  and  at  the  same  time  mixed  with  saliva.  This  is  a 
digestive  fluid  secreted  by  several  glands  located  beneath  or  at  the 
base  of  the  tongue.  The  secretion  of  saliva  is  stimulated  by  the 
presence  of  feed  in  the  mouth,  and  the  saliva  is  intimately  mixed 
with  the  feed  in  the  process  of  mastication,  especially  in  the  case 
of  coarse  and  dry  feeds. 

This  insalivation  of  the  feed  serves  two  purposes:  First,  it 
moistens  and  softens  the  feed  so  that  it  may  be  readily  swallowed. 
Second,  saliva  contains  a  digestive  ferment,  called  ptyalin,  which 
acts  upon  the  starch  of  the  feed,  changing  it  to  sugar  (maltose, 
the  same  sugar  as  is  found  in  malted  barley) .  Saliva  is  an  alkaline, 
viscous  fluid  which  is  secreted  in  immense  quantities  in  the  case  of 
the  large  farm  animals.  A  horse  fed  on  hay  has  been  found  to 
secrete  over  10  pounds  of  saliva  per  hour.  Oats  require  a  little 
more  than  their  own  weight  of  saliva,  and  dry,  coarse  feed  requires 
four  times  its  weight.  As  a  horse  or  cow  will  consume  at  least  24 
pounds  of  dry  feed  in  a  day,  it  follows  that  the  quantity  of  saliva 
secreted  daily  by  these  animals  may  reach  or  even  go  beyond  100 
pounds  (over  12  gallons). 

The  Gastric  Juice. — The  digestion  of  the  protein  substances  of 
the  feed  is  commenced  in  the  true  stomach  (abomasum)  of  the 
ruminants,  or  in  the  single  stomach  of  the  non-ruminants,  where 
the  feed  comes  into  contact  with  the  gastric  juice,  which  is 
secreted  here.  This  digestive  fluid  contains  two  ferments,  pepsin 
and  rennin,  and  also  an  appreciable  quantity  of  free  hydrochloric 
acid  (about  0.5  per  cent).  Both  rennin  and  pepsin  have  the 
faculty  of  coagulating  the  casein  of  milk,  a  wonderful  provision  of 
nature  which  insures  that  milk  will  remain  in  the  stomach  long 
enough  to  be  acted  upon  by  the  stomach  ferments,  and  its  nutrients 
thus  fully  utilized  by  the  animal.  In  young  calves  and  other  young 
ruminants  the  first  three  stomachs  are  not  much  developed,  and 


THE  DIGESTION  OF  FEEDS  29 

the  milk  passes  directly  into  the  fourth  stomach,  where  it  is 
curdled  by  the  rennin  and  subjected  to  the  action  of  pepsin.  The 
latter  ferment  acts  only  in  an  acid  medium  and  on  protein  sub- 
stances, which  it  causes  to  break  up  into  soluble  compounds,  known 
as  proteoses  and  peptones.  Since  the  ptyalin  of  the  saliva  acts 
only  in  an  alkaline  solution,  its  action  on  the  starch  of  the  feed 
is  stopped  when  the  feed  reaches  the  fourth  stomach  and  is  mixed 
with  the  gastric  juice. 

From  the  fourth  stomach  the  feed  passes  through  a  valve, 
called  the  pylorus,  into  the  small  intestine.  This  is  a  long,  tortuous 
tract,  about  120  feet  long  in  cattle,  in  which  three  different  diges- 
tive fluids  are  secreted  or  emptied:  The  pancreatic  juice,  the  bile, 
and  the  intestinal  juice. 

The  pancreatic  juice  is  secreted  by  the  large  gland  called  pan- 
creas (or  sweetbread)  and  is  emptied  into  the  small  intestine  near 
its  upper  end,  through  a  duct  leading  from  the  pancreas.  This 
digestive  fluid  contains  three  specific  ferments:  Trypsin,  amylop- 
sin,  and  lipase.  Trypsin  converts  protein  into  soluble  compounds, 
mainly  peptones,  but  also  compounds  of  simpler  molecular  struc- 
ture than  those  resulting  from  pepsin  digestion,  viz.,  amino  acids. 
Amylopsin  changes  starch  into  sugar,  and  lipase  (formerly  called 
steapsin)  acts  upon  the  fats,  splitting  these  up  into  their  com- 
ponent parts,  free  fatty  acids  and  glycerin  (see  p.  23). 

The  bile  plays  an  important  part  in  the  digestion  of  fats.  It  is 
a  strongly  alkaline,  yellowish-green  digestive  fluid  secreted  by  the 
liver  and  stored  in  the  gall-bladder  attached  to  the  same.  The  bile 
acts  upon  the  fats  of  the  feed  that  are  still  unchanged,  emulsifying 
these;  i.e.,  separating  them  into  very  minute  drops  or  globules 
that  may  be  either  absorbed  through  the  intestinal  wall  or  readily 
acted  upon  by  the  fat-splitting  ferment  lipase  of  the  pancreatic 
juice.  It  also  aids  in  the  absorption  of  the  fatty  acids.  The  bile 
contains  a  number  of  characteristic  components  whose  importance  in 
the  digestion  of  feeds  is  not  clearly  understood,  but  it  has  several 
regulative  and  digestive  functions  besides  those  mentioned;  it  acts 
as  a  natural  laxative  and  prevents  an  accumulation  of  waste  ma- 
terials in  the  intestines,  changing  poisonous  decomposition  products 
of  protein  into  harmless  compounds  that  are  excreted  through  the 
kidneys. 

The  intestinal  juice  is  secreted  by  numerous  small  glands  in 
the  mucous  lining  of  the  intestines,  especially  in  the  lower  part  of 
the  tract. 


30  PRINCIPLES  OF  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 

It  contains  three  different  ferments :  ( 1 )  Erepsin,  which  acts  upon  the 
decomposition  products  of  the  proteins,  albumose  and  peptones,  in  the 
same  way  as  trypsin;  (2)  an  amylolytic  -ferment  which  converts  starch 
to  sugar  (maltose),  and  (3)  invertases  (sucrase,  maltase,  and  lactase), 
changing  the  di-saccharides,  cane-,  malt-,  and  milk-sugar,  into  mono- 
saccharides  (dextrose  or  glucose,  see  p.  14). 

From  the  small  intestines  the  undigested  material  passes  into 
the  large  intestine,  where  the  formation  of  the  solid  excrements 
takes  place.  The  ferments  and  bacteria,  present  here  in  immense 
numbers,  continue  their  action  until  the  mass  has  assumed  the  con- 
sistency peculiar  to  each  species  and  is  voided  as  faeces. 

Summarizing  the  various  steps  in  the  digestion  of  the  different 
components  of  feed,  we  note  that — 

Starch  is  changed  into  sugar  (maltose)  by  the  ptyalin  of  the 
saliva,  the  amylopsin  of  the  pancreatic  juice,  and  an  amylolytic  fer- 
ment in  the  intestinal  juice. 

Fats  are  changed  into  free  fatty  acids  and  glycerin  by  the  lipase 
of  the  pancreatic  juice,  and  by  the  bile  into  emulsified  fats  or  soaps. 

Proteins  are  changed  into  proteose  and  peptones  by  the  pepsin  of 
the  gastric  juice,  and  into  amino  bodies  by  the  trypsin  of  the  pan- 
creatic juice  and  the  erepsin  of  the  intestinal  juice. 

In  addition  to  the  action  of  these  various  digestive  ferments  the 
feed  is  subjected  to  bacterial  action  in  the  paunch  and  the  intes- 
tines. Through  the  fermentation  processes  caused  by  bacteria,  the 
cellulose  and  considerable  quantities  of  other  carbohydrates  are  de- 
composed and  converted  into  gaseous  products,  like  marsh  gas, 
carbon-dioxide,  and  free  hydrogen,  which  are  of  no  value  to  the  ani- 
mals except  incidentally  through  the  heat  generated  in  these  proc- 
esses; this  may  be  of  benefit  in  aiding  to  maintain  the  body 
temperature  of  the  animals. 

Digestion  of  Feed  by  Non-ruminants. — The  digestion  of  feed 
by  the  non-ruminating  farm  animals  takes  place,  as  previously 
suggested,  in  much  the  same  way  as  in  the  case  of  the  ruminants. 

The  same  digestive  fluids  act  on  the  feed  of  the  horse  and  other 
animals  of  this  class  as  in  the  case  of  the  ruminants,  viz.,  saliva, 
gastric  juice,  pancreatic  juice,  bile,  and  intestinal  juice.  These 
differ  from  the  corresponding  fluids  secreted  by  ruminants  mainly 
in  point  of  concentration.  The  protein  compounds  are  broken  up 
into  simple  soluble  substances,  like  peptones  and  amino  acids;  the 
starch  is  changed  into  maltose,  and  the  fats  into  free  fatty  acids, 
emulsified  fats,  or  soaps.  The  stomach  of  the  horse  has  a  capacity 
of  12  to  15  quarts,  while  the  paunch  of  a  cow  or  steer  holds  over 
100  quarts.  The  horses  cannot,  therefore,  eat  as  much  of  bulky 


THE  DIGESTION  OF  FEEDS  31 

feeds  at  a  time  as  cattle,  nor  can  they  digest  coarse  feeds  containing 
considerable  cellulose  (fiber)  so  completely  as  the  ruminants. 

To  make  up  in  a  measure  for  its  small  stomach,  the  horse  has  a 
large  sac,  ccecum,  which  is  about  a  yard  long  and  corresponds  to  the 
vermiform  appendix  in  man.  The  large  intestine  is  also  of  con- 
siderable size  and  has  several  enlargements.  The  entire  length  of 
the  alimentary  canal  of  the  horse  is  about  twelve  times  the  length  of 
the  body,  that  of  the  pig  fourteen  times,  and  that  of  cattle  and  sheep 
twenty  times  or  more  the  length  of  the  body. 

Absorption  of  Digested  Materials. — The  soluble  materials  and 
those  that  have  been  broken  down  into  simpler,  largely  soluble  com- 
pounds through  the  various  processes  of  digestion  are  absorbed  to 
some  extent  by  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  stomach,  but  for  the 
most  part  pass  through  the  walls  of  the  intestines.  The  intestines 
are  lined  with  innumerable  fine  projections  called  villi,  inside  of 
which  are  found  microscopic  branches  of  two  systems  of  -vessels, 
the  capillaries  of  the  blood-vessels,  and  the  lacteals  belonging  to  the 
so-called  lymphatic  system.  The  digested  materials  in  the  form  of 
sugar,  salts,  soluble  proteose  and  peptones,  and  similar  compounds 
pass  over  into  the  capillaries  by  the  process  of  osmosis.  The  capil- 
laries are  exceedingly  fine  blood-vessels  that  converge  to  a  large 
vein  called  the  portal  vein,  through  which  the  materials  absorbed 
by  the  blood  are  taken  into  the  liver.  They  are  here  distributed 
through  a  second  set  of  capillaries  and  then  reunited,  passing  into 
the  hepatic  vein  which  leads  to  the  heart. 

The  emulsified  fats  and  free  fatty  acids,  or  combinations  of 
these  with  alkali  (soaps),  on  the  other  hand,  are  taken  up  by  the 
lacteals  in  the  villi  of  the  intestines.  From  these  they  pass  into 
the  lymphatic  system  and  are  later  emptied  into  the  thoracic  duct 
which  leads  to  one  of  the  large  veins  before  this  enters  the  heart. 

The  nutrients  thus  taken  into  the  blood  circulation  come  into 
contact  with  the  oxidizing  agent  of  the  blood,  the  oxyhasmoglobin, 
and  are  either  directly  oxidized  in  the  blood  or  carried  to  the  body 
tissues  to  repair  waste  and  supply  materials  for  the  formation  of 
new  tissues.  Very  likely,  both  these  processes  occur  simultaneously. 
Some  of  the  digested  and  assimilated  nutrients,  especially  sugar 
and  lactic  acid,  soon  disappear  from  the  blood  through  oxidation, 
and  the  carbon-dioxide  and  water  formed  in  the  process  of  oxidation 
are  excreted  through  the  lungs  and  skin.  Other  nutrients,  like  the 
mineral  salts  and  soluble  protein  compounds,  pass  into  circulation 
and  are  brought  to  the  parts  of  the  body  where  they  are  needed 
for  building  materials.  In  the  passage  through  the  intestinal  wall 


32  PRINCIPLES  OF  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 

the  soluble  protein  compounds  undergo  chemical  changes,  appar- 
ently through  the  action  of  the  living  cell  walls ;  the  peptones,  which 
are  abundant  in  the  intestinal  fluids,  have  disappeared  in  the  blood, 
and  in  their  stead  we  find  more  complex  protein  compounds  from 
which  the  body  is  able  to  build  its  various  protein  tissues  or  fluids. 
In  the  same  way  the  free  fatty  acids,  and  the  soaps  formed  from 
these  in  the  digestion  of  fats,  are  changed  in  their  passage  through 
the  intestinal  wall  into  neutral  fats  which  enter  the  lacteals  and 
pass  into  the  circulation  through  the  lymphatics. 

The  carbohydrates  of  the  feed,  as  we  have  seen,  are  changed  to 
sugar  in  the  process  of  digestion  and  enter  the  capillaries  as  such ; 
from  these  the  sugar  passes  into  the  blood  circulation  and  enters 
the  liver,  along  with  all  other  nutrients  except  the  fats.  In  the 
liver  the  sugar  is  changed  into  a  carbohydrate  of  the  same  composi- 
tion as  starch,  called  glycogen  or  animal  starch,  and  is  deposited  as 
such  in  the  cells  of  the  liver.  By  this  provision  an  accumulation  of 
sugar  in  the  blood  is  prevented,  and  the  body  has  a  base  of  supply 
of  a  readily  available  and  oxidizable  carbohydrate  which  can  be 
drawn  upon  as  needed.  The  liver  normally  contains  only  about  2 
per  cent  of  glycogen,  but  after  heavy  feeding  with  starchy  feeds 
the  content  may  rise  as  high  as  10  per  cent.  Aside  from  furnishing 
material  for  the  production  of  heat  and  muscular  energy,  glycogen 
may  also  serve  as  supply  material  for  the  formation  of  body  fat  and 
butter  fat,  in  the  case  of  fattening  animals  and  milch  cows,  respec- 
tively. 

The  fats  may  be  stored  between  the  muscular  fibers  or  deposited 
as  adipose  tissue,  or,  in  the  case  of  females  giving  milk,  may  be 
changed  into  butter  fat.  We  have  seen  that  the  muscular  tissues  of 
the  body  consist  largely  of  protein  substances,  and  that  they  are  the 
form  in  which  protein  is  stored  in  the  animal  body.  This  can  take 
place  only  in  the  growing  animal.  In  the  case  of  an  insufficient 
supply  of  feed  the  glycogen  of  the  liver  is  first  oxidized,  then  the 
fats,  and,  last  of  all,  the  body  tissues.  Oxidation  of  body  tissues 
takes  place  in  the  animal  cells  so  long  as  the  animal  is  living.  The 
final  oxidation  products  of  protein  substances  in  the  body  are 
carbon-dioxide  and  water  (as  in  the  case  of  carbohydrates  and  fat), 
and,  in  addition,  urea,  which  is  excreted  through  the  kidneys  in 
the  urine.  As  there  are  no  gaseous  nitrogenous  decomposition 
products  formed,  and  urea  represents  the  most  important  and, 
practically  speaking,  the  only  nitrogenous  decomposition  product  in 
the  oxidation  of  protein  substances  in  the  body,  it  becomes  a  meas- 
ure of  the  protein  decomposition  in  the  body.  By  determining  the 


THE  DIGESTION  OF  FEEDS  33 

amount  of  urea  excreted  in  the  urine,  say  during  a  day,  we  are 
able  to  ascertain  the  amount  of  protein  substances  in  the  feed  or 
of  body  tissues  that  have  been  decomposed  during  the  day  (see 
p.  44). 

Metabolism. — The  chemical  changes  that  occur  within  the  body  inci- 
dent to  the  exercise  of  vital  functions  and  to  growth  are  included  under  the 
general  term  metabolism.  Metabolic  processes  in  the  animal  body,  are  of 
two  kinds:  Katabolic  or  destructive,  those  by  which  the  food  materials 
are  broken  into  compounds  of  simpler  structure,  and  anabolic  or  construc- 
tive, by  which  these  simpler  compounds  are  again  built  up  into  complex 
substances.  The  formation  of  peptones  and  amino  acids  from  the  proteins 
is  a  katabolic  process,  while  the  reverse  change,  the  building  up  of  these 
simpler  compounds  into  body  protein,  albumen,  globulin,  etc.,  is  a  con- 
structive process.  Both  kinds  of  processes  take  place  continuously  in  the 
living  body,  as  we  have  seen;  they  are  essential  to  life,  and  are  discontinued 
only  when  life  ceases. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Give  the  various  groups  of  substances  found  in  the  animal  body  and 

state  their  main  characteristics. 

2.  Why  is  it  necessary  to  give  salt  to  farm  animals? 

3.  Name  the  various  digestive  fluids  in  the  animal  body,  and  state  the 

changes  which  different  components  of  feed  undergo  in  the  process  of 
digestion. 

4.  What  is  the  difference  between  ruminants  and  non-ruminants? 

5.  Name  the  American  farm  animals  that  belong  to  each  group. 

6.  Describe  the  difference  between  the  digestive  apparatus  of  ruminants  and 

non-ruminants. 

7.  Describe  the  process  of  absorption  of  the  digested  protein  substances, 

carbohydrates  and  fat. 


CHAPTER  IV 
USES  OF  FEED  BY  ANIMALS 

WE  have  seen  that  the  animals,  through  their  various  digestive 
fluids,  are  able  to  dissolve  certain  feed  components  from  the  feeding 
stuffs  which  they  eat,  and  that  these  components  are  used  for  main- 
taining the  vital  functions  of  the  animals,  and  for  the  production 
of  work,  meat,  milk,  wool,  etc.,  in  the  case  of  different  farm  animals. 
When  only  sufficient  feed  is  supplied  to  maintain  the  body  weight 
of  the  animal,  no  production  is  possible,  except  in  the  case  of 
milk-producing  animals.  Even  when  the  supply  of  feed  is  not 
sufficient  to  prevent  a  loss  of  body  weight,  these  animals  will  con- 
tinue to  prepuce  milk,  and  the  interests  of  their  young  are  thus 
safeguarded.  But  this  is  done  at  the  expense  of  the  flesh  (or  body 
fat)  of  the  mother.  Good  milch  cows  with  highly-developed  dairy 
qualities  will  lose  considerable  weight  under  these  conditions;  this 
is  especially  apt  to  occur  shortly  after  freshening,  although  a  rather 
liberal  supply  of  feed  may  be  given,  and  it  is  often  necessary  to 
counteract  this  tendency  to  loss  of  flesh  at  this  period  by  supplying 
special  fattening  feeds. 

Maintenance  Requirements. — The  amounts  of  feed  required 
to  maintain  farm  animals  at  an  even  body  weight  have  been  studied 
by  a  number  of  scientists  since  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  and 
the  maintenance  requirements  of  different  classes  of  farm  animals 
are  now  definitely  known.  This  subject  has  both  a  theoretical  and 
practical  interest,  and  is  of  fundamental  importance  in  the  study 
of  the  uses  of  feed  by  animals,  since  about  50  per  cent  of  the  feed 
they  eat  is  used  for  body  maintenance. 

The  earliest  statements  as  to  the  maintenance  requirements  of 
farm  animals  came  to  us  from  Germany.  Wolff's  maintenance  stand- 
ard for  cattle,  for  instance,  called  for  a  supply  in  the  feed  of  the  fol- 
lowing digestible  components:  0.7  pound  protein,  8  pounds  carbo- 
hydrates, and  0.1  pound  fat  per  1000  pounds  body  weight  and  per 
day.  Later  investigations  by  Sanborn,  Caldwell,  Haecker,  and 
others  showed,  however,  that  this  is  a  larger  allowance  than  neces- 
sary. The  Haecker  maintenance  standard  for  barren  dry  cows  is 
now  generally  accepted;  this  calls  for  0.7  pound  protein,  7  pounds 
digestible  carbohydrates,  and  0.1  pound  digestible  fat  per  1000 
pounds  body  weight. 

Of  late  years  the  amount  of  chemical  energy  which  different 
34 


USES  OF  FEED  BY  ANIMALS 


35 


feed  components  and  feeding  stuffs  supply  is  generally  taken  to 
represent  their  value  for  feeding  purposes,  as  will  be  shown  pres- 
ently (p.  44).  This  has  come  largely  through  the  studies  of  Stoh- 
mann,  Rubner,  and  Kellner  in  Germany,  and  Armsby  in  this 
country. 

The  maintenance  rations  for  different  animals  per  thousand 
pounds  or  one  hundred  pounds  body  weight  formulated  by  Armsby 
are  as  follows  i1 

Armsby  Standard  Maintenance  Rations 


Live  weight 

Digestible  true 
protein 

Energy  value, 
therms 

Cattle 

1000  pounds 

0.50  pound 

6.0 

Horses 

1000  pounds 

1.00  pound 

7.0 

Sheep 

100  pounds 

0.10  pound 

1.0 

Swine*  

100  pounds 

0.10  pound 

1.12 

*  Illinois  Bulletin  163. 
(p.  ID- 


The  amount  of  digestible  protein  is  crude,  and  not  true  protein 


.The  figures  given  for  the  amounts  of  digestible  protein  and 
energy  values  for  maintaining  swine  at  an  even  weight  are  derived 
from  recent  investigations  by  Professor  Wm.  Dietrich,  formerly  of 
the  Illinois  Experiment  Station. 

There  are  a  number  of  factors  that  influence  the  maintenance 
requirements  of  animals;  among  these  may  be  mentioned:  The 
muscular  activity  of  the  animals  (whether  standing  or  lying), 
temperament,  external  conditions  tending  to  affect  the  degree  of 
muscular  activity,  condition  or  amount  of  fat  tissue  carried,  and 
external  temperatures.2  It  is  believed,  however,  that  the  feeding 
standards  show  with  a  considerable  degree  of  accuracy  the  average 
amounts  of  digestible  true  protein  and  energy  values  required  by 
the  different  classes  of  farm  animals  given  for  the  maintenance  of 
an  even  body  weight. 

It  is  generally  assumed  that  the  maintenance  requirements  of  animals 
are  proportional  to  their  live  weights;  i.e.,  a  cow  weighing  1200  pounds  will 
require  50  per  cent  more  feed  for  the  maintenance  of  her  body  weight  than 
an  800-pound  cow.  This  is  not  correct,  however,  although  sufficiently  so  for 
most  practical  purposes.  The  maintenance  requirements  increase  with  the 
surface  of  the  animal,  and  this  is  approximately  proportional  to  the  squares 
of  the  cube-roots  of  the  weights  of  similar  animals.  If  a  cow  weighing  800 
pounds  requires,  say,  8  pounds  of  digestible  nutrients  for  maintenance,  a 
1200-pound  cow  would  require  8  X  V (*£££)*  or  10-48  pounds,  and  a  1600-pound 
cow,  12.7  pounds. 

farmers'  Bulletin  346. 

2  Pennsylvania  Bulletin  111. 


36  PRINCIPLES  OF  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 

Uses  of  Feed. — It  has  been  shown  that  the  digested  and  assimi- 
lated feed  is  oxidized  in  the  cells  and  tissues  of  the  body;  the 
chemical  energy  thus  set  free  is  utilized  in  one  or  more  of  three 
different  ways:  As  kinetic  energy,  for  the  maintenance  of  the  body 
heat,  or  as  mechanical  energy,  for  the  production  of  internal  work 
in  the  body  of  the  animal  or  for  mechanical  labor  (horses,  mules, 
and  oxen),  or  as  chemical  energy  stored  in  the  form  of  animal 
products.  If  the  energy  supplied  in  the  feed  is  more  than  sufficient 
to  cover  the  demands  for  the  first  two  purposes  given,  the  excess 
may  be  stored  up  in  the  body  in  the  form  of  animal  products,  like 
meat,  fat,  milk,  eggs,  etc.,  which  may  later  serve  to  supply  energy 
to  man  or  other  animals  when  used  in  their  feed. 

The  functions  of  the  different  components  of  feed  are,  briefly 
stated,  as  follows : 

Protein. — Flesh-forming  substances.  Essential  for  the  produc- 
tion of  lean  meat,  muscles,  skin,  ligaments,  horns,  hair,  wool,  milk, 
etc.  When  present  in  excess  in  the  feed,  used  for  production  of  body 
fat  or  as  fuel,  to  give  warmth  and  energy.  Of  general  value  in 
stimulating  nutritive  processes  in  the  body. 

Fats. — Furnish  fuel  to  keep  the  animal  warm  and  produce 
energy.  Aid  in  the  production  of  fatty  tissue.  For  the  produc- 
tion of  heat,  2.25  times  as  valuable  as  carbohydrates. 

Carbohydrates. — Supply  fuel  to  keep  the  animal  warm  and 
produce  energy  for  muscular  work.  They  are  transformed  into 
fats  for  the  production  of  fatty  tissue.3 

Feed  for  Production. — The  portion  of  the  ration  fed  an  animal 
over  and  above  maintenance  requirements  is  the  productive  part 
of  the  ration;  the  higher  this  can  be  increased  up  to  the  capacity 
of  the  animal  for  digestion  and  absorption  of  feed,  the  better  are 
the  returns  obtained  and  the  more  economical  is  the  production, 
so  far  as  feed  consumption  is  concerned.  The  amounts  of  nutrients 
required  by  the  different  farm  animals  for  productive  purposes  have 
been  determined  in  similar  ways  as  in  the  case  of  the  maintenance 
standards.  The  first  attempts  to  formulate  general  standards  for 
farm  animals  were  made  by  the  German  scientist  Grouven  in  1858. 
He  gave  the  quantities  of  total  dry  substance,  protein,  and  fat 
which  an  animal  of  a  certain  age  would  require  daily  in  its  feed 
ration.  A  somewhat  later  effort  in  this  direction  is  represented  by 
the  standards  proposed  by  Wolff,  in  which  the  amounts  of  digestible 
components  required  by  different  classes  of  farm  animals  under 
varying  conditions  are  given. 

'North  Carolina  Bulletin  106. 


USES  OF  FEED  BY  ANIMALS 


37 


Feeding  Standards. — The  Wolff  standards  were  brought  to  the 
attention  of  American  farmers  in  the  seventies,  and,  mainly  through 
the  publication  of  Armsby's  "  Manual  of  Cattle  Feeding,"  in  1880, 
they  became  quite  generally  known  here  as  "  the  German  feeding 
standards."  They  were  modified  in  1897  by  Lehmann,  another 
German  scientist,  and  ten  years  later  Kellner  proposed  a  new  set  of 
standards,  based  on  contents  of  digestible  protein  and  "starch 
values  ";  i.e.,  the  amounts  of  different  nutrients  or  feeds  equivalent 
to  one  pound  of  starch  for  the  production  of  body  fat  by  mature 
fattening  steers.  These  and  similar  standards  suggested  by  Armsby 
are  the  latest  contributions  to  this  subject.  In  order  that  students 
may  become  familiar  with  the  two  methods  of  determining  the 
requirements  of  different  farm  animals,  we  shall  give  in  this  book 
both  sets  of  standards,  known  as  the  Wolff-Lehmann  and  the  Armsby 
standards,  based  respectively  upon  digestible  components  of  feeds 
and  the  digestible  true  protein  and  energy  values,  measured  in 
therms.4 

Wolff-Lehmann  Standards. — The  feed  requirements  for  dif- 
ferent farm  animals  of  average  body  weights,  according  to  these 
standards,  are  as  follows: 

Feed  Requirements  per  1000  Pounds  Live  Weight. — Wolff-Lehmann 


Digestible 

Dry 

Nutri- 

matter, 
pounds 

Protein, 
pounds 

Carbohy- 
drates, 
pounds 

Fat, 
pounds 

tive 
ratio,  1  : 

Fattening  steers,  first  period  
Milch  cows,  yielding  22  pounds 

30 

2.5 

15.0 

.5 

6.5 

milk  daily  

29 

2.5 

13.0 

.5 

5.7 

Fattening  sheep,  first  period  
Horses,  medium  work  

30 

24 

3.0 
2.0 

15.0 
11.0 

.5 
.6 

5.4 
6.2 

Fattening  swine,  first  period  

36 

4.5 

25.0 

.7 

5.9 

As  all  the  main  feeding  stuffs  in  this  country,  like  corn  and  com 
products,  oats,  mill  feeds,  oil  meal,  hay,  etc.,  are  relatively  high  in 
fat,  there  is  no  danger  that  the  rations  will  not  contain  sufficient 
amounts  of  this  component;  it  does  not,  therefore,  call  for  special 
consideration,  and  has  generally  been  merged  with  the  carbohydrates 
in  this  book,  according  to  its  carbohydrate  equivalent  (by  multiply- 
ing with  2.25,  see  p.  46).  Stated  in  this  manner,  the  Wolff-Leh- 


4  One  therm  is  the  amount  of  heat  required  to  raise  the  temperature  of 
1000  kilograms  of  water  1  degree  C.  (see  p.  45). 


38 


PRINCIPLES  OF  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 


mann  standards  become  very  simple  and  are  as  easily  applied  as  any 
standard  so  far  proposed  for  farm  animals. 

The  nutritive  ratio  of  a  feed  (or  a  ration)  is  the  proportion 
between  the  digestible  protein  and  the  sum  of  the  digestible  carbo- 
hydrates and  fat  contained  therein.  The  fat  is  changed  to  its 
carbohydrate  equivalent  by  multiplying  with  2.25,  because  it  has 
2.25  times  as  high  heat  value  as  similar  amounts  of  carbohydrates. 
For  example,  the  nutritive  ratio  is  expressed  as  1 :  6.5,  meaning  that 
there  are  6.5  pounds  digestible  carbohydrates  and  fat  combined 
for  every  pound  of  digestible  protein.  The  nutritive  ratio  is  cal- 
culated as  follows,  e.g.,  in  the  case  of  the  first  ratio  given  above : 

0.5  (digestible  fat)  X  2.25  =  1.13; 

15.0  (digestible  carbohydrates)  +1.13  (the  carbohydrate  equiv- 
alent of  the  digestible  fat)  =  16.13 ; 

16.13  -h  2.5   (digestible  protein)  =  6.5. 

The  nutritive  ratio  of  the  ration  for  milch  cows  given  is  figured 
in  the  same  way,  as  follows  : 
.5    X  2.25  =  1.13 ; 

13.0    +1.13  =  14.13; 

14.13  -^  2.5    =  5.7;  the  nutritive  ratio  is,  therefore,  1  :  5.7. 

The  Armsby  Standards. — The  estimated  feed  requirements  for 
different  classes  of  farm  animals  according  to  Armsby  are  given  in 
the  following  table ;  the  figures  show  the  amounts  of  digestible  true 
protein  and  energy  values,  expressed  in  therms,  that  should  be  sup- 
plied daily  to  growing  cattle  and  sheep  at  different  ages.  These 
figures  in  all  cases  include  the  maintenance  requirements  for  the 
various  animals.5 

Estimated  Feed  Requirements  per  Day  and  per  Head  (including  the  Maintenance 
Requirements) . — Armsby. 


Growing  cattle 

Growing  sheep 

Age, 
months 

Live 
weight, 
pounds 

Digestible 
protein, 
pounds 

Energy 
values, 
therms 

Live 
weight, 
pounds 

Digestible 
protein, 
pounds 

Energy 
values, 
therms 

3 

275 

1.10 

5.0 

6 

425 

1.30 

6.0 

70 

.30 

1.30 

9 

> 

90 

.25 

1.40 

12 

650 

1.65 

7.0 

110 

.23 

1.40 

15 

130 

.23 

1.50 

18 

850 

1.70 

7.5 

145 

.22 

1.60 

24 

1000 

1.75 

8.0 

.... 

30 

1100 

1.65 

8.0 

.... 

5  Farmers'  Bulletin  346. 


WATER        DIGESTIBLE  PROTEIN  ••  DIGEST.  CARBOHYDRAT 


DIGEST.  FAT  cm 


PASTURE  GRASS 
GREEN  CLOVER 
GREEN  CORN 
CORN  SILAGE 
CLOVER  SILAGE 
TIMOTHY  HAY 
CLOVER  HAY 
FODDER  CORN  Dry 
CORN  STALKS,  FiBld  CUrtd 
MARSH  HAY 
OAT  STRAW 
BARLEY  STRAW 
MANGEL-WURZELS 
RUTABAGAS 
SUGAR  BEETS 
POTATOES 
COTTON  SEED  MEAL 
LINSEED  MEAL 
GLUTEN  MEAL 


|  14.2 


BUCKWHEAT  MIDDLINGS 

MALT  SPROUTS 

PEA  MEAL  I 

WHEAT  BRAN  I 

WHEAT  MIDDLINGS  [ 

BARLEY 

WHEAT  I 

OATS 

RYE  | 

INDIAN  CORN  (MAIZE)  [ 

CORN  COB 


MILK 

BUTTER 

CHEESE 


COMPOSITION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 


USES  OF  FEED  BY  ANIMALS 


39 


For  fairly  mature  fattening  animals  (e.g.,  two-  to  three-year- 
old  steers)  3.5  therms  per  pound  of  gain  in  live  weight  are  believed 
to  be  sufficient,  and  a  similar  amount  of  digestible  protein  is 
recommended  as  in  feeding  for  normal  growth. 

Requirements  for  Milk  Production. — For  the  production  of  a 
pound  of  average  milk  containing  about  13  per  cent  solids  and  4 
per  cent  fat,  0.05  pound  of  digestible  protein  and  0.3  therm  of  energy 
value  are  considered  ample,  milk  rich  in  fat  and  in  total  solids  re- 
quiring more  nutriment  than  milk  containing  more  water  or  a  lower 
percentage  of  fat.  Recent  work  by.Haecker  and  by  Eckles  has  fur- 
nished additional  data  on  this  point.  The  results  obtained  by 
these  investigators  are  important  contributions  to  the  subject  of 
feed  requirements  of  dairy  cows.  The  tentative  statement  of  the 
requirements  for  the  production  of  milk  containing  different  per- 
centages of  butter  fat  given  by  Eckles  is  as  follows  :6 

Feed  Requirements  for  Different  Grades  of  Milk 


Per  pound  of  milk 

Per  cent  fat 
in  milk 

Digestible 
protein,  pounds 

Energy  values, 
therms 

3.0 

.050 

.26 

4.0 

.055 

.30 

5.0 

.062 

.36 

6.0 

.070 

.45 

The  method  of  calculating  rations  according  to  the  Wolff-Leh- 
mann  and  Armsby  standards  will  be  explained  fully  when  the  uses 
of  nutrients  by-  different  animals  and  the  various  feeding  stuffs 
available  for  farm  animals  have  been  discussed. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  do  you  understand  by  the  maintenance  requirements  of  animals? 

2.  Give  maintenance  ration  for  a   1000-pound  cow  according  to    (a)    the 

Wolff -Lehmann  standard,  ( 6 )  the  Armsby  standard. 

3.  Give  the  feed  requirements  for  fattening  swine  according  to  the  Wolff- 

Lehmann  standard. 

4.  WThat  is  meant  by  nutritive  ratio  ?     Give  an  example. 

5.  Show  how  the  feed  requirements  for  a  dairy  cow  are  calculated  according 

to  the  Armsby  standard. 

6  Missouri  Research  Bulletin  7. 


CHAPTER  V 

DETERMINATION  OF  THE  NUTRITIVE  VALUE  OF 
FEEDING  STUFFS 

THE  nutritive  value  of  different  feeding  stuffs  may  be  determined 
by  two  different  methods :  First,  by  chemical  analysis  and  digestion 
trials  with  farm  animals ;  second,  by  trials  with  animals  in  a  respira- 
tion apparatus  or  respiration  calorimeter.  The  first  method  shows 
the  proportions  of  the  feeds  that  are  dissolved  in  the  digestive 
processes,  while  the  second  method  furnishes  direct  information  as 
to  the  nutritive  effect  of  the  feeds  or  rations  and  shows  the  uses 
which  an  animal  makes  of  the  feed  eaten. 

Digestion  Trials. — The  digestibility  of  feeding  stuffs  is  deter- 
mined in  so-called  digestion  trials  with  animals.  Numerous  such 
trials  have  been  conducted  with  ruminants  during  the  past  half- 
century  in  this  country  and  abroad,  and  a  number  of  trials  have 
also  been  conducted  with  horses,  pigs,  and  poultry.  In  these  trials 
the  animals  experimented  with  are  fed  the  feeding  stuff  whose 
digestibility  is  to  be  determined,  for  a  period  of  about  a  week,  and 
the  solid  excrements  voided  by  the  animal  are  then  collected  for 
another  week.  Samples  of  both  the  feed  eaten  and  of  the  faeces  are 
taken  for  chemical  analysis,  and  by  a  comparison  of  the  total 
amounts  of  feed  components  in  each  the  proportion  of  each  com- 
ponent retained  or  digested  by  the  animal  may  be  determined  and 
calculated  on  a  basis  of  percentage  digestibility.  An  example  will 
readily  explain  the  method  of  calculation. 

In  an  experiment -by  the  author,  in  which  the  digestibility  of 
corn  silage  was  to  be  determined,  a  cow  was  fed,  on  the  average, 
55.0  pounds  of  silage  per  day;  a  small  amount,  0.71  pound,  was  re- 
fused. She  voided  58.8  pounds  of  dung  daily  during  the  trial. 
Chemical  analyses  were  made  of  both  the  silage  fed  and  that  refused, 
as  well  as  of  the  dung  voided.  The  digestion  coefficients  for  the 
silage  were  then  calculated  as  shown  below: 

Digestion  Trial  with  Corn  Silage 


Dry 

matter, 
pounds 

Protein, 
pounds 

Fat, 
pounds 

Fiber, 
pounds 

Nitrogen- 
free 
extract, 
pounds 

Ash, 
pounds 

In  54.3  pounds  of  silage  .  . 
In  58.8  pounds  of  dung  .  . 

20.55 
7.62 

1.52 

.68 

.67 
.12 

4.25 
2.29 

13.23 
3.73 

.88 
.72 

Digested 

12.93 

.84 

.55 

1  96 

9.50 

.16 

Digested  in  per  cent  

62.9 

55.3 

82.1 

45.4 

71.8 

18.2 

40 


NUTRITIVE  VALUE  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS  41 

The  results  show  that  the  dry  matter  of  the  corn  silage  was 
found  to  be  62.9  per  cent  digestible,  the  protein  55.3  per  cent,  the 
fat  82.1  per  cent;  i.e.,  the  digestion  coefficients  for  the  different  com- 
ponents in  the  feed  were  as  follows  (leaving  off  fractions)  :  Dry 
matter,  63;  protein,  55;  fat,  82;  fiber,  45;  nitrogen-free  extract, 
72,  and  ash,  18. 

If  the  digestion  coefficients  for  the  organic  matter  in  silage  is 
wanted,  it  is  readily  obtained  by  calculating  the  amount  of  this 
component  in  the  feed  and  faeces,  as  follows:  In  silage,  20.55  (dry 
matter)  minus  0.88  pound  (ash)  equals  19.67  pounds  (organic 
matter)  ;  in  faeces,  7.62  less  0.72  equals  6.90;  19.67  less  6.90  equals 
12.77;  percentage  digestible,  12.77  divided  by  19.67  equals  64.4. 
It  was  found,  therefore,  that  64  per  cent  of  the  organic  matter  of 
the  silage  was  digestible. 

In  the  case  of  feeding  stuffs  that  cannot  be  fed  alone  (i.e.,  a  grain 
feed  for  ruminants)  it  is  necessary  to  feed  it  along  with  some  feed 
of  known  digestibility  that  will  supplement  it  so  that  when  fed 
together  they  will  make  at  least  a  fairly  normal  ration.  The  cal- 
culated amounts  of  digestible  components  in  the  second  feed  are 
then  deducted  from  the  total  digestible  amounts  of  the  various 
components  in  the  ration  fed,  and  the  difference  is  calculated  on  a 
percentage  basis  of  the  total  amounts  present  in  the  feed  whose 
digestibility  was  to  be  determined  (Fig.  8). 

Interpretation  of  Results. — The  figures  obtained  in  digestion 
trials  show  the  proportion  of  the  components  of  the  feed  that  have 
been  dissolved  by  the  digestive  fluids  of  the  body  and  retained  for 
the  uses  of  the  animal.  This  is  true  only  in  a  general  way,  for 
various  factors  render  the  matter  much  more  complicated.  There 
reappears  in  the  dung  not  only  the  undigested  matter  of  the  feed, 
but  small  amounts  of  residues  of  the  digestive  juices,  waste  prod- 
ucts in  the  activity  of  the  digestive  organs,  and  intestinal  mucus. 
A  correction  can  be  made,  however,  for  the  presence  of  these  in  the 
dung  by  determining  the  amounts  of  these  waste  products.  This 
is  done  by  means  of  artificial  digestion  of  the  dung  with  a  pepsin- 
hydrochloric-acid  solution  (Kiihn's  method),  and  making  proper 
deductions  for  these  in  the  calculations.  Another  and  more  serious 
source  of  error  is  introduced  by  the  fact  that  the  feed  is  subjected 
to  the  action  of  bacteria  and  ferments  in  the  paunch  and  intestines, 
through  which  gaseous  products  are  formed,  as  previously  stated 
(p.  30).  These  attack  especially  the  fiber  of  plant  materials,  and 
the  figures  obtained  for  the  digestibility  of  these  components,  there- 
fore, include  a  portion  which  has  not  been  dissolved  by  the  digestive 


42 


PRINCIPLES  OF  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 


fluids  of  the  animals  and  taken  into  circulation.  This  portion 
does  not  contribute  to  the  maintenance  or  the  growth  of  the  body, 
and  is  of  value  to  the  animal  only  in  so  far  as  the  heat  generated 
by  the  fermentation  processes  helps  to  maintain  an  even  body 
temperature.  In  spite  of  these  errors  to  which  digestion  trials 


10       20      30 


COTTON-SOT  MEAL 

LINSEED  MEAL 

SOYBEANS 

DRIED  BREWERS'  GRAIN 

GLUTEN  FEED 

COW  PEAS 

WHEAT  BRAN 

ALFALFA  HAY 

WHEAT  MIDDLINGS 

RED  CLOVER  HAY 

OAT5 

RYE 

BARLEY 

INDIAN  CORN 

DRIED  BEET  PULP 

TIMOTHY  HAY 

CORN  STALKS 

OAT  STRAW 

SKIM  MILK 

COWS'  MILK 

PASTURE  GRASS 

MANGELS 

RAPE 

TURNIPS 

CORN  5ILAGE 


)  NUTRITIVE  RATIO 
UI.2. 
1.5 
1.8 
2.3 
2.4 
3.1 
4.0 
4.3 
4.6 
5.9 
6.2 
78 
8.0 
9.9 
11.9 
16.2 
23.6 
383 
2.0 
38 
4.5 
4.9 
4.3 
7-7 
120 


PROTEIN 


CARBOHYDRATES  AND  FAT 


FIG.  8. — Digestible  components  and  nutritive  ratios  of  common  feeds,  in  per  cent. 

are  subject,  the  results  obtained  by  them  are  of  the  greatest  value 
to  both  the  feeder  and  the  student  of  nutrition  problems.  Until 
the  latter  part  of  the  last  century,  our  theories  of  these  problems 
and  the  science  of  animal  nutrition  rested  almost  wholly  on  the 
knowledge  of  the  feeding  stuffs  gained  through  chemical  analysis 
and  digestion  trials. 


NUTRITIVE  VALUE  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 


43 


Coefficients  of  Digestibility. — The  average  digestion  coeffi- 
cients for  a  number  of  important  feeding  stuffs  are  given  in  the 
following  table.  Complete  compilations  of  digestion  coefficients 
determined  for  American  feeding  stuffs  will  be  found  in  several 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  and  State  publications,  as  well 
as  in  standard  reference  books  on  the  subject;  these  compilations 
also  give  the  number  of  separate  trials  conducted  and  the  number 
of  animals  experimented  with  in  each  case,  as  well  as  the  variations 
in  the  results  of  the  separate  trials.1 

Digestion  Coefficients  for  Ruminants 


Dry 
matter 

Protein 

Fat 

Fiber 

Nitrogen- 
free 
extract 

Pasture  grass  
Green  alfalfa  

71 
61 

70 
74 

63 
39 

76 

43 

73 

72 

Timothy  hay 

55 

48 

50 

50 

62 

Meadow  hay 

61 

57 

53 

60 

64 

Indian  corn  fodder  
Corn  stover.  .    .    . 

68 
57 

55 
36 

74 
67 

65 
64 

73 
59 

Corn  silage      .    .    . 

66 

50 

82 

64 

71 

Corn  meal  

88 

66 

91 

92 

Oats  

70 

77 

89 

31 

77 

Wheat  bran  

66 

77 

63 

41 

71 

Wheat  middlings  
Pea  meal   

82 

87 

88 
83 

86 
55 

36 
26 

88 
94 

Linseed  meal  (old  process) 
Cotton-seed  meal  

79 

77 

89 
83 

89 
94 

57 
35 

78 
78 

Mangels  

87 

70 

37 

95 

Sugar  beets 

92 

72 



34 

97 

Respiration  Studies. — The  second  method  by  which  the  nutri- 
tive effect  of  feeding  stuffs  may  be  studied  is  by  respiration  experi- 
ments, involving  the  use  of  either  a  respiration  apparatus  or  a 
so-called  respiration  calorimeter. 

The  Respiration  Apparatus. — The  first  apparatus  of  this  kind 
was  constructed  by  Pettenkofer,  the  great  Munich  chemist.  It 
consists  of  a  large  air-tight  chamber,  through  which  a  measured 
current  of  air  is  maintained.  The  animal  experimented  with  is 
kept  in  this  chamber  for  a  given  period,  24  hours  or  longer.  By 
weighings  and  analyses  of  the  feed,  water,  and  air  taken  in  by  the 
animal,  as  well  as  of  the  gaseous  and  solid  products  given  off, 
the  intake  and  outgo  of  carbon,  nitrogen,  oxygen,  and  other  ele- 

1  Bulletin  77,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations;  Massachusetts  Report, 
1912;  Henry,  "Feeds  and  Feeding,"  p.  574;  Jordan,  "The  Feeding  of  Ani- 
mals," p.  427. 


44  PRINCIPLES  OF  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 

ments  from  the  body  can  be  determined  with  great  accuracy.  The 
effect  of  a  given  ration  on  the  nutritive  processes  in  the  animal 
body  is  thus  ascertained,  and  it  is  possible  to  determine  whether 
the  animal  lost  or  gained  in  flesh  or  body  fat  on  the  ration  fed, 
and  also  the  exact  amount  of  the  gain  or  loss.  An  example  will 
illustrate  how  this  information  is  obtained. 

A  steer  received  daily  the  following  amounts  of  nitrogen  and 
carbohydrates  in  the  feed,  water,  and  air:  0.44  pound  nitrogen  and 
13.25  pounds  carbon;  he  excreted  in  the  urine,  dung,  vapor,  and 
gases  given  off  during  the  24  hours  0.35  pound  nitrogen  and  12.10 
pounds  carbon,  or  there  remained  in  the  body  0.09  pound  nitrogen 
and  1.15  pounds  carbon. 

Pure  muscular  tissue  (lean  meat)  contains,  on  the  average, 
16.67  per  cent  nitrogen  and  52.54  per  cent  carbon.  The  addition 
of  0.09  pound  nitrogen,  therefore,  equals  0.09  multiplied  by  52.54,  or 
0.54  pound  of  dry  lean  meat ;  this  amount  contains  0.28  pound  car- 
bon (0.54  pound  multiplied  by  52.54/100).  The  difference  between 
this  amount  of  carbon  and  that  remaining  in  the  body  is  0.87  pound. 
As  only  very  small  amounts  of  other  non-nitrogenous  components 
than  fat  are  found  in  the  body,  we  are  safe  in  assuming  that  the 
excess  of  the  carbon  was  used  for  the  formation  of  body  fat;  as 
this  contains,  on  the  average,  67.5  per  cent  carbon,  the  difference 
of  0.87  pound  equals  1.14  pounds  of  fatty  tissue  which  was  added 
during  the  day.  The  steer  gained  0.54  pound  of  dry  lean  meat  and 
1.14  pounds  body  fat  during  the  day.  If  the  increase  was  2.50 
pounds  a  day  on  the  average  throughout  the  experimental  period, 
the  difference,  amounting  to  0.82  pound,  was  composed  of  water 
and  a  small  amount  of  mineral  matter,  both  of  which  can  be 
readily  determined. 

Calorimetry. — The  value  of  a  feeding  stuff  for  the  nutrition  of 
animals  depends,  to  a  large  extent,  on  the  amount  of  chemical 
energy  that  is  set  free  when  it  is  oxidized.  This  energy  may  be 
utilized  for  the  production  of  body  heat,  work,  or  animal  tissues. 
The  burning  of  a  material  in  a  stove  and  the  oxidation  of  the 
digested  nutrients  in  the  animal  body  are  similar  chemical  proc- 
esses differing  mainly  in  the  intensity  with  which  they  run  their 
course.  In  either  case  organic  substances  unite  with  the  oxygen 
of  the  air  or  of  the  blood,  respectively,  and  form  carbon-dioxide  and 
water  (also  urea  in  the  case  of  protein  substances  oxidized  in  the 
body).  The  same  amount  of  heat  is  given  off  whether  the  oxidation 
takes  place  in  the  body  or  outside  of  it.  ,  The  heat  evolved  on  com- 
bustion is  a  measure  of  the  chemical  energy  which  is  stored  up  in 


NUTRITIVE  VALUE  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS  45 

the  feeding  stuff,  and  may  be  used  by  animals  for  maintenance  and 
production. 

Various  units  have  been  employed  for  measuring  the  heat  of 
combustion.  The  common  unit  is  a  Calorie,  which  represents  the 
amount  of  heat  required  to  raise  the  temperature  of  one  kilo- 
gram of  water  one  degree  Centigrade,  or  that  of  a  pound  of  water 
very  nearly  four  degrees  Fahrenheit.  A  therm,  as  proposed  by 
Armsby,  means  1000  Calories,  the  amount  of  heat  required  to  raise 
the  temperature  of  1000  kilograms  of  water  (or  2204.6  pounds) 
one  degree  Centigrade.  This  unit  has  been  quite  generally  adopted 
of  late  and  will  be  used  in  the  following  pages. 

The  various  components  of  feeding  stuffs  contain  certain 
amounts  of  oxygen  and  are,  therefore,  partially  oxidized.  Carbo- 
hydrates thus  contain  about  50  per  cent  of  oxygen,  fats  10  to  12  per 
cent,  protein  22  per  cent  (pp.  9,  12, 14) .  The  amount  of  heat  evolved 
in  the  combustion  of  any  organic  material  depends  on  the  propor- 
tion of  oxygen  it  requires  for  complete  oxidation  of  the  carbon, 
hydrogen,  nitrogen,  and  other  chemical  elements  contained  therein. 
This  amount  can  be  calculated  in  the  case  of  substances  of  known 
composition,  and  directly  determined  in  a  so-called  calorimeter. 

The  Calorimeter. — This  apparatus  consists  of  a  well-insulated, 
double-walled  compartment,  into  which  a  platinum  shell  or  bomb 
is  introduced  and  submerged  in  water.  A  weighed  small  amount 
of  the  substance  whose  heat  of  combustion  is  to  be  determined  is 
introduced  into  this  shell  with  compressed  oxygen,  and  ignited 
by  means  of  an  electric  spark.  By  noting  the  rise  in  temperature 
in  the  surrounding  water  the  amount  of  heat  given  off  by  the  sub- 
stance on  complete  combustion  can  be  calculated. 

Chemical  Energy. — It  has  been  found  by  direct  experiments 
that  the  chemical  energy  of  different  classes  of  nutrients  and  feed- 
ing stuffs  is  as  follows : 

Chemical  Energy  in  100  Pounds,  in  Therms 

Pure  nutrients 
Protein :  Carbohydrates : 

Wheat  gluten    272  Starch,  cellulose 190 

Gliadin,  serum  albumen .  . .   268  Glucose  170 

Egg    albumen,     pure     lean  Sucrose,  lactose,  maltose. .    179 

meat    259       Fats : 

Blood    fibrin    256  Steers    and   swine    425 

Sheep 427 

Corn    oil    421 

Common  feeding  stuffs 

Flaxseed   meal    267  Alfalfa  hay,  mixed  hay  and 

Linseed  oil  meal 194  oat    straw    173 

Corn  meal   171  Rice  meal  .          170 


46  PRINCIPLES  OF  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 

The  figures  given  in  the  table  show  the  amounts  of  chemical 
energy  (in  therm  units)  which  are  set  free  when  100  pounds  of 
different  pure  nutrients  and  common  feeding  stuffs  are  completely 
burned.  We  note  that  the  figures  range  for  protein  from  256  to 
272  therms,  for  carbohydrates  from  170  to  190,  and  for  fats  from 
421  to  427,  while  those  for  feeding  stuffs  vary  from  170  (rice 
meal)  to  267  (flaxseed  meal).  Fats  yield  about  2.25  times  as  much 
energy  on  combustion  as  sta'rch,  and  this  factor  has  been  commonly 


FIG  9  —A  view  of  the  respiration  calorimeter  at  the  Pennsylvania  Experiment  Sta- 
tion. The  calorimeter  chamber  in  which  the  animal  on  the  experiment  is  kept,  to  the  left. 
(Armsby.) 

adopted  for  the  heat-producing  value  of  fats  as  compared  with  that 
of  starch  -and  of  carbohydrates  in  general. 

The  figures  given  represent  the  total  potential  energy  that  is 
locked  up  in  the  materials,  but  they  do  not  show  the  energy  that  is 
available  to  animals  fed  the  different  feeding  stuffs  or  nutrients. 
The  reason  for  this  is  three-fold : 

First,  feeding  stuffs  are  never  completely  digested  by  animals, 
as  has  been  shown ;  only  the  digestible  portions  furnish  energy  for 
physiological  uses:  the  rest  is  inert  matter,  passing  through  the 
animals  and  of  no  direct  value  to  them,  except  possibly  in  regulat- 


NUTRITIVE  VALUE  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS  47 

ing  the  bowels.  The  less  digestible  matter  in  a  feed,  the  lower  is, 
therefore,  its  value  to  animals. 

Second,  there  are  certain  losses  through  fermentations  in  the 
paunch  and  intestines  which  result  in  the  evolution  of  incompletely 
oxidized  gases  that  escape  from  the  alimentary  tract  (p.  30). 

Third,  incompletely  oxidized  protein  substances  are  excreted  as 
urea,  and  the  fuel  value  which  they  represent  is,  therefore,  of  no 
value  to  animals.  The  total  energy  less  that  lost  through  these 
three  sources  furnishes  the  available  energy,  or  so-called  fuel  value 
of  the  feed.  This  may  be  determined  by  means  of  the  respiration 
apparatus,  or  its  improved  form,  the  respiration  calorimeter. 

The  Respiration  Calorimeter. — The  Pettenkofer  respiration  ap- 
paratus was  greatly  improved  by  Atwater  and  Rosa  by  making  the 
respiration  chamber  into  a  calorimeter.  The  original  apparatus 
built  at  Wesleyan  University,  Connecticut,  has  been. further  modi- 
fied by  Armsby  and  associates  at  the  Pennsylvania  station,  where 
an  apparatus  was  built  in  1898  by  the  Pennsylvania  station,  in 
cooperation  with  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.  This  appa- 
ratus is  sufficiently  large  to  allow  of  investigations  with  mature 
cattle,  and  it  is  possible  to  continue  the  experiments  for  a  con- 
siderable length  of  time,  if  desired  (Fig.  9). 

"  The  apparatus  consists  of  a  Pettenkofer  respiration  apparatus  pro- 
vided with  special  devices  for  the  accurate  measurement,  sampling,  and 
analysis  of  the  air-current.  A  current  of  cold  water  is  led  through  copper- 
absorbing  pipes  near  the  top  of  the  respiration  chamber  and  takes  up  the 
heat  given  off  by  the  subject.  The  volume  of  water  used  being  measured, 
and  its  temperature  when  entering  and  leaving  being  taken  at  frequent 
intervals,  the  amount  of  heat  brought  out  in  the  water-current  is  readily 
calculated.  To  this  is  added  the  latent  heat  of  the  water-vapor  brought  out 
in  the  ventilating  air-current.  By  means  of  ingenious  electrical  devices, 
.  .  .  the  temperature  of  the  interior  of  the  apparatus  is  kept  constant,  and 
any  loss  of  heat  by  radiation  through  the  walls  or  in  the  air-current  is 
prevented."2 

Trials  with  this  apparatus  have  been  conducted  since  about 
1901,  and  the  results  have  greatly  enlarged  our  knowledge  of  nutri- 
tive processes  and  the  value  of  different  feeding  stuffs.  The  con- 
duct of  such  trials  involves  an  immense  amount  of  chemical  work 
and  calculations;  during  the  actual  experiments  alone  the  services 
of  at  least  seven  men  are  required,  exclusive  of  the  assistants  in 
charge  of  the  feeding  and  collection  of  excreta.3 

2  Armsby,  "  Principles  of  Animal  Nutrition,"  p.  248. 

3  For   a  description   of  the  Pennsylvania  respiration   calorimeter,   see 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  Year  Book,   1910,  pp.  307  to  318;   Ex- 
periment Station  Record,  vol.  15,  p.  1037. 


48 


PRINCIPLES  OF  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 


By  means  of  the  respiration  calorimeter  the  amount  of  heat 
produced  by  the  oxidation  of  the  digested  nutrients  in  the  animal 
body  is  determined.  The  distribution  of  the  losses  of  energy  to 
the  animal  in  the  dung,  urine,  and  marsh  gas,  as  well  as  the  net 
energy  contained  in  the  different  feeding  stuffs,  is  also  shown  by 
the  results  obtained  in  trials  with  this  apparatus. 

The  following  table  shows  the  distribution  in  therm  units  in 
the  case  of  three  common  feeds,  as  determined  by  Armsby : 

Energy  in  Different  Feeding  Stuffs  per  100  Pounds,  in  Therms 


Clover  hay 

Corn 

meal 

Whea 

t  straw 

Total  energy  
Losses  in  dung.  .  73.6 

172.1 

15.7 

170.9 

93.9 

171.4 

Losses  in  urine.  .11.5 

6.5 

4.3 

Losses  in  marsh 

gas  12.3 

15.9 

15.5 

Total  losses  

97.4 

38.1 

113.7 

Available  energy,  balance 

74.7 

132.8 

57.7 

Available  in  per  cent  .... 

43 

78 

34 

We  note  that,  while  clover  hay  and  corn  meal  contain  nearly 
the  same  amount  of  total  energy,  only  43  per  cent  of  this  is  avail- 
able to  animals  in  the  case  of  clover  hay,  against  78  per  cent  in  the 
case  of  corn  meal. 

Available  Energy. — These  figures  and  others  similarly  obtained 
do  not,  however,  tell  the  whole  story.  Clover  hay  and  other  rough 
feeds  are  bulky  and  call  for  a  large  amount  of  work  in  mastication 
and  moving  it  through  the  alimentary  canal,  and  also  necessitate 
the  secretion  of  larger  amounts  of  digestive  fluids  than  do  corn 
meal  and  other  concentrates.  The  energy  required  for  these  pur- 
poses is  likewise  lost  to  the  animal,  so  far  as  production  or  work  is 
concerned,  and  can  be  provided  only  through  that  supplied  in  the 
feed.  The  balance,  which  is  known  as  net  available  energy  or  net 
energy,  represents  that  available  to  animals  for  maintaining  the 
vital  functions  or  for  productive  purposes. 

The  results  obtained  in  respiration  experiments  with  steers  show 
that  a  larger  percentage  of  the  energy  value  of  concentrated  feeds 
is  available  for  maintenance  or  for  production  than  in  the  case  of  the 
rough  feeds.  In  the  poorest  of  these,  as  wheat  straw,  only  small 


NUTRITIVE  VALUE  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS  49 

amounts  of  the  energy  value  are  obtained  for  productive  purposes. 
Animals  that  have  to  subsist  on  only  such  feeds  for  any  length  of 
time  will  lose  flesh,  since  there  is  not  a  sufficient  amount  of  energy 
left  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  body  after  that  required  for  the  diges- 
tion of  the  feed  is  taken  out. 

The  weak  point  in  the  old  system  of  basing  the  nutritive  values 
of  different  feeding  stuffs  on  their  contents  of  total  digestible 
components  is  that  it  does  not  take  into  account  the  differences  in 
the  amount  of  energy  required  for  the  work  of  digestion  and  assimi- 
lation of  feeds  of  different  kinds.  Where  this  work  does  not  differ 
greatly,  however,  as  between  different  feeds  of  the  same  kind, 
either  green  feeds,  dry  roughage,  or  concentrates,  the  error  intro- 
duced is  not,  generally  speaking,  of  much  importance.  The  im- 
mense amount  of  work  done  in  the  study  of  the  composition  and 
digestibility  of  different  feeding  stuffs  makes  the  data  'obtained 
along  these  lines  most  valuable  and  fully  justifies  their  continued 
use  in  practice  and  for  the  study  of  the  comparative  value  of  feed- 
ing stuffs. 

Kellner's  Starch  Values. — The  system  of  comparison  of  dif- 
ferent feeding  stuffs  elaborated  during  the  early  part  of  the  century 
by  the  German  agricultural  chemist,  Kellner,  is  based  on  the  re- 
sults of  extensive  feeding  respiration  trials  with  mature  fattening 
steers.  Kellner  fed  such  steers  basal  rations  barely  sufficient  to 
maintain  the  animals  at  an  even  body  weight,  and  added  to  these 
either  pure  nutrients,  like  starch,  sugar,  oil,  etc.,  fed  separately 
or  combined,  or  different  feeding  stuffs  whose  nutritive  effect  was 
studied.  He  thus  found  that  one  pound  of  digestible  components 
was  capable  of  producing  the  following  amounts  of  body  fat : 

1  pound  pure  starch  or  digestible  fiber,  0.248  pound  body  fat. 

1  pound  sucrose,  0.188  pound  body  fat. 

1  pound  protein,  0.235  pound  body  fat. 

1  pound  fat  or  oil,  0.474  to  0.598  pound,  according  to  its  c^igin. 

A  large  number  of  trials  were  made  to  determine  whether  the 
digestible  components  of  ordinary  feeding  stuffs  gave  similar  re- 
sults as  corresponding  amounts  of  the  various  groups  of  nutrients 
fed  in  pure  form.  In  the  case  of  a  number  of  feeding  stuffs  this 
was  actually  found  to  hold  true;  e.g.,  for  many  oil  meals,  corn, 
rice  polish,  red  dog  flour,  potatoes,  buckwheat  middlings,  and  ani- 
feeds.  With  most  feeds,  however,  the  amount  of  fat  which 
4 


50  PRINCIPLES  OF  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 

they  produced  fell  considerably  short  of  what  the  same  amounts  of 
digestible  components  contained  therein  would  have  produced,  if 
fed  separately. 

In  the  case  of  these  feeds  the  work  of  mastication  and  digestion 
reduced  their  nutritive  effect,  and  they  were  given  lower  valuation 
numbers  as  a  result.  The  following  method  of  comparison  of  the 
production  values  of  feeding  stuffs  was  accordingly  adopted  by 
Kellner.  The  starch  values  were  determined  on  a  basis  of  the 
amount  of  fat  produced  by  the  different  digestible  components,  viz. : 

1  part  digestible  protein,  0.94  starch  value. 

1  part  digestible  fat  from  oil-bearing  seeds  and  oil  meals,   2.41 

starch  value. 

from  cereals  and  their  by-products,  2.12  starch  value, 
from  hay  and  straw,  roots  and  their  by-products,   1.91   starch 

value. 
1  part  digestible  carbohydrates  and  fiber,  1.0  starch  value. 

If  the  nutrients  of  the  particular  feed  can  be  regarded  as  of  full 
value,  it  is  only  necessary  to  add  starch  values  of  the  three  groups 
of  nutrients  as  shown  above,  which  gives  the  total  starch  values  of 
the  feed.  If  they  were  given  lower  values,  the  total  valuation  ob- 
tained according  to  the  preceding  equivalent  figures  is  reduced 
by  the  respective  valuation  values.4  The  starch  values  thus  obtained 
have  been  calculated  for  all  kinds  of  European  feeding  stuffs,  and 
are  published  in  standard  German  reference  books.  The  starch  or 
"  production  values  "  for  American  feeding  stuffs  which  have  been 
published  by  Armsby  are  given  in  the  Appendix. 

Kellner  also  formulated  feeding  standards  for  the  various  classes 
of  farm  animals,  which  give  the  amounts  of  dry  matter,  digestible 
true  protein,  and  starch  equivalents  required  for  maintenance  and 
production  in  each  case.  These  follow  rather  closely  the  Wolff- 
Lehmann  standards,  except  for  the  introduction  of  the  starch 
equivalents. 

Critique  of  the  Starch  Values. — The  Kellner  starch  values 
and  standards  are  the  latest  contributions  to  our  knowledge  of  the 
relative  values  of  feeding  stuffs  and  the  feed  requirements  of  farm 
animals.  They  have  been  accepted  by  some  European  writers  and 
students  of  animal  nutrition,  while  others,  and  good  authorities 
among  them,  consider  that  we  are  not,  at  the  present  stage  of  our 
knowledge,  warranted  in  applying  the  data  obtained  to  other 

4  The  valuation  figures  for  the  various  feeding  stuffs  are  given  in 
Kellner's  two  books,  "  Ernahrung  d.  Landw.  Nutztiere  "  and  "  Fiitterungs- 
lehre,"  and  in  the  English  translation  of  the  latter  book,  "The  Scientific 
Feeding  of  Animals"  (London,  1909). 


NUTRITIVE  VALUE  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS  51 

classes  of  farm  animals  than  steers,5  nor  indeed  to  other  conditions 
of  fattening  steers  than  where  these  are  fed  moderate  rations,  at 
the  early  stage  of  the  fattening  period.6 

The  starch  values  very  likely  furnish  substantially  correct  in- 
formation for  the  study  of  rations  and  the  feed  requirements  for 
fattening  cattle,  and  may  be  safely  adopted  for  this  purpose.  They 
are  less  reliable  for  growing  animals  and,  especially,  for  milch  cows, 
and  due  credit  is  not  given  to  high-protein  feeds  and  rations  when 
these  values  are  applied  to  the  feeding  of  these  animals. 

A  comparison  of  the  figures,  e.g.,  for  Indian  corn  (starch  value, 
88.8  therms),7  oil  meal  (78.9),  pea  meal  (71.8),  dried  brewers' 
grains  (60.0),  wheat  bran  (48.2),  and  malt  sprouts  (46.3),  will 
at  once  show  that  the  figures  do  not  express  the  true  relative  nutritive 
values  of  these  feeds  for  the  purposes  stated.  The  explanation  of 
the  apparent  discrepancies  very  likely  is  to  be  sought  in  the  fact 
that  in  case  of  milk-producing  and  growing  animals  the  protein  of 
the  feed  possesses  a  higher  value  than  for  fattening.  In  the  latter 
case  the  animal  utilizes  only  the  difference  between  the  total  energy 
of  the  digestible  protein  and  that  of  the  solids  in  the  urine,  while 
in  the  former  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  protein  is  changed 
directly  into  milk  and  flesh  proteins.  Instead  of  calculating  the 
starch  values  on  the  basis  of  one  pound  protein  equals  0.94  starch 
value,  it  has  been  proposed  by  Hansson8  to  allow  the  full  energy 
value  of  protein,  viz.,  1.43 ;  this  method  appears  to  make  the  starch 
value  system  applicable  also  to  milch  cows. 

The  Kellner-Armsby's  standards  for  feeding  farm  animals  are 
given  in  Part  III,  under  the  respective  classes  of  animals. 

5  Zuntz,     Mo.     Bulletin     International     Institute     of     Agriculture,     v 
(1914),   No.  4,   p.  440;    Landw.  Jahrb.,  44,   p.   761;    Pott,   "  Handb.   tier. 
Ernahrung,"   vol.    3,    ii,   p.    iv.      The   following   quotation    from    Farmers' 
Bulletin   346   by   Armsby   is   also   of   interest   in   this   connection :      "  The 
Kellner  production  values  .  .  .  show  primarily  the  value  of  these  different 
feeding  stuffs  for  the  production  of  gain  in  mature  fattening  cattle.     Even 
for  this  purpose  many  of  them  are  confessedly  approximate  estimates,  and 
still  less  can  they  be  regarded  as  strictly  accurate  for  other  kinds  of  animals 
and   other  purposes   of   feeding.     Nevertheless,   there   seems  to  be  reason 
for  believing  that  they  also  represent  fairly  well  the  relative  values  of 
feeding    stuffs    for    sheep    at    least,    and    probably    for    horses,    and    for 
growth  and  milk  production  as  well  as  for  fattening.   .  .  .     As  regards 
swine,  the  matter  is  far  less  certain,  and  it  may  perhaps  be  questioned 
whether  the  values  given  in  the  table  are  any  more  satisfactory  for  this 
animal  than  the  older  ones."     See  also  Armsby,  Cycl.  Amer.  Agr.,  vol.  iii, 
p.  67,  and  Murray,  "  Chemistry  of  Cattle  Feeding  and  Dairying,"  p.  222. 

6  Wood  and  Yule,  Journal  Agr.  Science,  v,  1914,  p.  248. 

7  Table  IV  in  Appendix.- 

8  Centralanst.  Ber.,  Stockholm,  No.  85. 


52  PRINCIPLES  OF  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Give  an  outline  of  the  method  of  conducting  digestion  trials. 

2.  What  is  a  coefficient  of  digestibility? 

3.  Describe  the  respiration  apparatus. 

4.  How  is  a  gain  in  muscular  tissue  and  in  body  fat  in  the  animal  body 

determined  ? 

5.  What  is  a  Calorie?    A  therm? 

6.  Describe  a  calorimeter. 

7.  Describe  the  respiration  calorimeter. 

8.  What  is  meant  by  the  potential  energy  of  a  feeding  stuff? 

9.  What  is  the  difference  between  potential  and  available  energy? 

10.  Why  are  coarse  feeds  less  valuable  to  farm  animals  than  concentrates? 

11.  What  are  energy  values,  and  how  have  they  been  obtained? 

12.  For    which    class    of   farm    animals   are   the   energy   values   especially 

applicable,  and  what  are  the  weak  points  in  applying  these  to  other 
classes  of  farm  animals? 


CHAPTER  VI 

VARIATIONS  IN  THE  CHEMICAL  COMPOSITION  OF 
FEEDING  STUFFS 

WE  have  seen  that  plants  manufacture  more  or  less  complex 
organic  substances  and  ash  materials  from  carbon-dioxide,  water, 
and  mineral  components,  and  that  the  energy  thus  stored  up  in  the 
plants  is  utilized  by  the  animals  feeding  on  these  materials.  Differ- 
ent plants  vary  considerably  in  the  amount  of  energy  that  they 
supply,  and  the  same  plants  vary  according  to  their  stage  of  growth 
and  other  conditions.  The  main  factors  that  influence  the  chemical 
composition  of  plants  will  be  considered  in  the  following  pages. 

The  soil  is  an  important  factor  in  determining  the  quality  as 
well  as  the  yield  of  the  crops  grown ;  in  a  fertile  soil,  plants  reach 
their  highest  development,  and  maximum  crops  are  secured.  It 
is  possible  to  modify  appreciably  the  percentage  of  different  plant 
constituents  by  special  fertilization;  an  increase  in  the  protein 
content,  e.g.,  may  be  secured  by  applications  of  a  general  fertilizer 
that  is  high  in  nitrogen.  By  increasing  the  nitrogen  content  of  the 
soil  in  this  manner  the  percentage  of  protein  in  barley  was  increased 
from  13.77  to  over  19  per  cent.  German  scientists  found  the  protein 
content  of  wheat  grown  on  different  kinds  of  soil  as  follows:  On 
unfertilized  soil,  16.25  per  cent;  fertilized  with  nitrogen,  21.43  per 
cent,  and  fertilized  with  nitrogen  and  phosphoric  acid,  22.37 
per  cent.  Differences  are  likely  to  occur  in  the  composition  of  the 
whole  plant  as  well  as,  to  a  smaller  extent,  in  the  kernels,  and  it  is 
therefore  as  important  for  the  stockman  as  for  the  general  farmer 
to  adopt  a  good  system  of  crop  rotation  that  will  secure  the  best 
possible  growing  conditions  for  the  different  crops.  Plants  grown 
in  a  soil  rich  in  lime  or  phosphoric  acid  will  contain  a  higher  per- 
centage of  these  constituents  than  those  grown  in  a  poor  soil,  and 
will,  therefore,  be  of  superior  value  for  feeding  milk-producing 
and  growing  animals,  which  require  a  liberal  supply  of  these  mineral 
constituents. 

Climatic  Environment. — It  would  be  wrong  to  assume,  how- 
ever, that  the  soil  exerts  the  chief  influence  in  determining  the 
physical  properties  or  the  chemical  composition  of  a  crop.  In  a 
study  of  the  influence  of  environment  on  wheat,  which  was  continued 

53 


54  PRINCIPLES  OF  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 

for  a  series  of  years,  LeClerc  found  that  the  climatic  environment 
(i.e.,  temperature,  rainfall,  and  sunlight)  is  the  most  important 
factor  that  influences  the  physical  and  chemical  characteristics  of 
a  crop/  and  the  results  obtained  by  Wiley  with  sugar  beets  and 
sweet  corn  lead  to  the  same  conclusion.2 

The  length  of  the  growing  periods  of  plants  is  another  factor 
that  influences  the  quality  of  the  crop  grown.  Spring  grains  are 
higher  in  protein  and  lower  in  starch  than  winter  grains,  because 
their  growing  period  is  shortened  by  the  higher  average  temperature 
during  the  summer.  Plants  grown  in  the  South  are  richer  in 
protein  than  northern-grown  plants,  for  the  same  reasons.3 

The  Variety  and  Quality  of  Seed. — The  sowing  time  and  the 
method  of  seeding  or  planting  are  other  factors  that  have  a  bearing 
on  the  quality  of  the  crops  grown.  The  stage  of  development  when 
a  crop  is  harvested  is  another  factor  that  influences  profoundly  both 
the  crop  yields  secured  and  their  chemical  composition  and  feeding 
value.  We  select  as  illustrations  data  obtained  with  two  of  the 
most  important  single  fodder  crops  in  our  country,  Indian  corn 
and  alfalfa. 

Indian  Corn. — Like  all  other  plants,  Indian  corn  is  higher  in 
water,  ash,  protein,  amides,  and  fat,  and  lower  in  starch  and  fiber, 
during  early  vegetative  stages  than  later  during  the  growing  period. 
In  experiments  conducted  by  Hornberger,  a  field  of  Indian  corn 
was  sampled  and  analyzed  once  every  week,  from  June  18,  when 
the  plants  were  only  six  to  seven  inches  high,  until  September  10, 
when  the  corn  was  nearly  ripe.  The  results  of  the  analyses  show 
that  the  water  contents  of  the  samples  decreased  with  the  advance 
of  the  growing  period  from  90.3  per  cent  to  80.5  per  cent,  and 
that  the  ranges  in  composition  of  the  dry  matter  were  as  follows : 

Ash  from  9.5  to  4.3  per  cent. 
Protein  from  30.8  to  9.7  per  cent. 
Amides  from  9.8  to  2.8  per  cent. 

Fiber  from  17.8  to  22.6  per  cent  (with  a  maximum  of  over  26  per  cent, 
August  6  to  13). 

Nitrogen-free  extract  from  41.7  to  61.5  per  cent. 
Fat  from  3.2  to  1.6  per  cent. 

Considering  the  total  yields  of  feed  components  on  the  different 
dates,  the  following  results  are  worthy  of  special  note  :4 

1  Journal  Agricultural  Research,  i,  p.  275. 

2  Bulletins  96  and  127,  Bureau  of  Chemistry,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture.    See  also  Shaw,  "  Studies  upon  the  Influences  Affecting  the  Protein 
Content  of  Wheat,"  Univ.  of  Cal.  Pub.  in  Agricultural  Sciences,  No.  5. 

"Haselhoff,  "  Landw.  Futtermittel,"  p.   13. 

4  See  Woll,  "  A  Book  on  Silage,"  Rev.  Ed.,  p.  14. 


CHEMICAL  COMPOSITION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 

Yield  of  Ingredients  in  Corn  Plants,  in  Grams* 


55 


1000  plants  contained 

Green 

Date 

weight 
of  one 
plant 

Dry 

matter 

Ash 

Crude 
protein 

Fiber 

Sugar, 
starch, 
etc. 

Crude 
fat 

Amides 

June     25  ... 

5 

0.5 

43 

142 

90 

210 

16 

41 

July      2... 

21 

2.1 

161 

566 

438 

847 

63 

186 

9... 

39 

4.1 

342 

1020 

933 

1681 

94 

385 

16... 

78 

8.3 

674 

1898 

1896 

3585 

187 

677 

23... 

161 

18.8 

1190 

3249 

4581 

9301 

380 

1136 

30.  .. 

276 

32.8 

1978 

4972 

8194 

16884 

679 

1727 

August    6  ... 

468 

55.0 

3069 

7215 

14420 

29266 

851 

2780 

13... 

565 

67.4 

3576 

8192 

17«92 

36746 

865 

2735 

20.  .. 

591 

82.6 

3991 

8848 

21164 

47357 

974 

3369 

27... 

108.7 

5131 

11369 

27394 

63232 

1143 

4970 

September  3  ... 

121.2 

5215 

12218 

28311 

73247 

1729 

4722 

10... 

eii 

119.4 

5120 

11554 

27023 

73473 

1906 

3245 

*  1000  grams  equal  2.2  pounds  avoirdupois. 

Similar  results  were  obtained  at  Geneva  (N.  Y.),  Maine,  and 
other  stations  in  studies  of  the  development  of  the  corn  plant  from 
tasselling  to  maturity.5 

Chemical  Changes  in  the  Corn  Crop  toward  Maturity 


Yield  per  acre 

Tasselled 

Silked 

Milk 

Glazed 

Ripe 

Gross  weight,  tons  .... 

9.0 

129 

163 

16  1 

14  2 

Dry  matter,  pounds  

1619 

3078 

4643 

7202 

7918 

Ash,  pounds          .        .    . 

139 

201 

232 

303 

364 

Crude  protein,  pounds  .  .  . 
Fiber  pounds 

240 
514 

437 

873 

479 
1262 

644 
1756 

678 
1734 

Nitrogen-free    extract, 
pounds                    .... 

654 

1399 

2441 

4240 

4828 

Fat  pounds                  .    •  . 

72 

168 

229 

260 

314 

The  data  given  in  the  table  show  how  rapidly  the  yields  of  feed 
materials  increase  with  the  advancing  age  of  the  corn  plant  and  also 
how  the  increase  during  the  latter  stages  of  growth  comes  mainly 
on  the  nitrogen-free  extract  (largely  starch).  Between  tasselling 
and  maturity  the  corn  .plant  will  increase  an  average  of  about  200 
per  cent  in  dry  matter  and  toward  300  per  cent  in  carbohydrate 
content,  according  to  the  results  of  experiments  conducted  at  five 
different  stations.  The  largest  amounts  of  feed  materials  in  the  corn 
crop  are  not  obtained  until  the  corn  is  well  ripened;  when  the 
plants  have  reached  their  total  growth  in  height  they  contain  only 
one-third  to  one-half  of  the  weight  of  dry  matter  which  they  will 
gain  if  left  to  mature. 

'Geneva,  N.  Y.,  Report,   1899;   Maine  Report,   1895. 


56 


PRINCIPLES  OF  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 


The  preceding  remarks  refer  to  total  feed  components  in  the 
corn  plant,  and  not  to  its  digestible  components.  Digestion  trials 
trials  have  shown  that  the  digestibility  of  plants  in  general  decreases 
as  they  grow  older.  The  following  table  of  results  obtained  in 
American  trials  will  show  the  average  digestion  coefficients  of 
green  dent  corn  fodder  cut  at  different  stages  of  growth :  ° 

Digestion  Coefficients  for  Green  Dent  Fodder  Corn 


Stage  of  growth 

No.  of 
trials 

Dry 
matter 

Crude 
protein 

Fiber 

Nitrogen- 
free 
extract 

Fat 

Immature  
In  milk  
Glazing  
Mature  

14 
17 
9 
23 

68 
70 
67 
69 

66 
62 
54 
54 

65 
64 
51 
59 

71 
77 
75 
75 

86 
76 
78 
75 

While  there  was  no  material  change  in  the  digestibility  of  the 
dry  matter  of  the  corn,,  a  marked  decrease  is  noticeable  in  the  digesti- 
bility of  the  crude  protein,  fiber,  and  fat  with  the  greater  maturity 
of  the  fodder.  The  digestibility  of  the  nitrogen-free  extract,  on  the 
other  hand,  remains  nearly  stationary  at  the  different  stages  of  the 
growth,  and  the  main  increase  in  feed  components  falls  on  this 
constituent.  In  general,  the  decrease  in  the  digestibility  of  the 
feed  components  given  is  not  sufficiently  high  to  affect  the  large 
increase  in  the  yield  of  the  components  with  the  advancing  age  of 
the  plant,  so  that  the  yields  of  total  digestible  components  will  be 
greater  at  maturity  or  directly  before  that  time  than  at  any  earlier 
stage  of  growth.  Hence  we  find  that  the  general  practice  of 
cutting  corn  for  forage  or  for  the  silo  at  the  time  when  it  is  in  the 
roasting-ear  stage  or  beginning  to  harden  is  in  accord  with  our 
best  knowledge  of  the  subject. 

Alfalfa. — The  changes  in  the  composition  of  alfalfa  during  its 
growing  period  have  been  studied  by  several  stations.  The  average 
results  obtained  for  three  cuttings  at  the  Ontario  Agricultural  Col- 
lege are  given  below. 

Composition  of  Alfalfa  Cut  at  Different  Stages  of  Growth,  in  Per  Cent 


Moisture 

Composition  of  water-free  substance 

Ash 

Protein 

Fiber 

Nitrogen- 
free 
extract 

Fat 

Amides 

Buds  forming  ... 
Medium  bloom. 
Full  bloom  ....  . 

81.53 

78.48 
74.50 

11.63 
9.60 
8.35 

18.46 
15.44 
13.12 

27.56 
33.58 
37.64 

39.36 
39.08 
39.36 

3.06 
2.40 
1.94 

4.09 
2.23 
1.86 

Compilation  by  Lindsey  and  Smith,  Massachusetts  Report,  1911. 


CHEMICAL  COMPOSITION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 


57 


The  results  show  a  decrease  in  the  percentage  of  water  and, 
therefore,  in  the  succulence  of  the  crop.  In  order  to  show  the 
changes  in  chemical  composition,  the  analyses  have  been  calculated 
to  water-free  substance,  and  it  is  seen  that  as  the  plant  matures  the 
percentages  of  ash,  crude  protein,  amides,  and  fat  decrease;  as 
the  stems  grow  hard  and  woody,  the  fiber  contents  of  the  plant  in- 
crease, and  the  percentages  of  valuable  feed  components  decrease  in 
proportion,  except  that  of  nitrogen-free  extract,  which  does  not 
change  materially.  If  we  now  consider  the  digestibility  of  the  dif- 
ferent cuttings  of  alfalfa,  we  have  the  following  average  figures 
obtained  in  digestion  experiments  conducted  at  Ontario  Agricul- 
tural College : 7 

Digestion  Coefficients  for  Alfalfa 


Dry 

matter 

Crude 
protein 

Fat 

Nitrogen- 
free 
extract 

Fiber 

First  cutting  

59 

73 

49 

72 

39 

Second  cutting  

56 

73 

50 

70 

38 

Third  cutting  

51 

64 

44 

64 

37 

There  is  a  decided  decrease  in  the  digestibility  of  the  total  dry 
matter  and  of  all  components  as  the  plant  approaches  maturity ;  the 
decrease  is  especially  marked  between  the  second  and  third  cuttings. 
If  the  total  digestible  matter  obtained  in  the  three  crops  be  calcu- 
lated on  the  basis  of  the  figures  just  given,  it  will  be  found  that 
the  amounts  of  digestible  matter  secured  in  the  latter  cuttings  are 
considerably  lower  than  those  found  in  the  preceding  ones.  In  the 
Canadian  experiments  referred  to,  the  three  cuttings  gave,  on  the 
average,  the  amounts  of  green  alfalfa  and  digestible  matter  shown 
in  the  table : 

Calculated  Yields  of  Dry  Matter  and  Digestible  Matter  of  Green 
Alfalfa  Per  Acre  in  Pounds 


Green 
alfalfa 

Total  dry 
matter 

Digestible 
matter 

First  cutting  

14075 

2714 

1590 

Second  cutting  

14513 

3525 

1978 

Third  cutting  

12363 

3142 

1611 

There  was  a  decrease  of  18.8  per  cent,  or  nearly  one-fifth,  of  the 
digestible  matter  during  the  two  weeks'  interval  between  the  last 
two  cuttings,  calculated  on  the  yields  of  the  second  cutting. 

7  Report,  1899,  p.  27. 


58  PRINCIPLES  OF  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 

The  largest  amount  of  digestible  matter  was  obtained  at  the 
time  of  the  second  cutting  in  these  trials,  when  the  growing  crop 
was  about  one-third  in  bloom.  It  is  generally  recommended  to  cut 
alfalfa  at  this  stage  of  growth,  or  when  between  one-tenth  to  one- 
third  of  the  plants  are  in  bloom.  It  will  be  found,  on  examination, 
that  new  shoots  are  coming  up  from  the  crown  of  the  roots  at  this 
time.  The  cutting  should  not  be  delayed  until  these  are  sufficiently 
high  to  be  injured,  as  the  yield  of  the  next  crop  would  be  greatly 
reduced  thereby.  The  exact  time  to  begin  cutting  alfalfa  will 
naturally  vary  somewhat  according  to  the  area  to  be  cut,  the 
weather,  and  other  conditions.  The  difficulty  of  making  a  good 
quality  of  hay  from  alfalfa  that  is  past  bloom,  and  the  large  losses 
of  leaves  in  this  case,  render  it  important  not  to  delay  the  cutting 
beyond  the  time  stated  above. 

Hay  Crops.— The  changes  in  the  chemical  composition  of  the 
hay  crops  during  the  growing  season,  in  so  far  as  they  have  been 
studied,  appear  to  be  similar  to  those  of  alfalfa,  and  show  that 
these  increase  in  fiber  as  the  plants1  grow  older,  and  that  the  nitro- 
gen-free extract  changes  but  little,  with  the  other  components  de- 
creasing to  a  considerable  extent.8  In  the  case  of  Indian  corn,  on 
the  other  hand,  like  all  grain  crops  as  well  as  roots  and  tubers,  so 
far  as  is  known,  the  highest  yield  of  feed  materials  is  obtained  at 
maturity. 

While  the  best  time  of  cutting  hay  will  vary  somewhat  according 
to  the  use  for  which  it  is  intended,  we  note  that  early-cut  hay  has, 
in  general,  a  higher  feeding  value,  ton  for  ton,  than  late-cut  hay; 
it  is  better,  therefore,  to  cut  too  early  than  to  delay  the  cutting 
until  past  bloom.  Practical  experience  has  also  shown  that  the 
best  time  for  cutting  hay  is,  in  general,  shortly  before  bloom  or 
during  the  early  bloom.  When  the  hay  is  intended  for  horses  or 
fattening  cattle,  later  cutting  may  be  practised,  since  these  animals 
relish  late-cut  hay  and  are  fed  hay  more  for  the  filling  and  less 
for  the  nutriment  it  supplies  than  is  the  case  with  dairy  cows, 
young  stock,  and  sheep. 

The  method  of  harvesting  or  preparation  of  feeding  stuffs, 
furthermore,  affects  their  chemical  composition  and  value.  Dried 
green  grass  and  carefully  cured  hay  have  been  found  to  have  a 
similar  value  as  an  equivalent  of  fresh  green  grass ;  the  only  appre- 
ciable difference  in  chemical  composition  comes  from  the  water 
content  of  the  three  materials.  Under  ordinary  practical  conditions, 
certain  losses  from  leaves  and  tender  stems  in  hay-making  cannot, 

8  Fraps,  "  Principles  of  Agricultural  Chemistry,"  p.  381. 


CHEMICAL  COMPOSITION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 


59 


however,  be  entirely  avoided;  these  losses  are  especially  important 
in  the  case  of  leguminous  crops,  notably  alfalfa.  The  leaves  make 
up  about  one-half  of  the  weight  of  the  alfalfa  plant,  and  carry 
four-fifths  of  the  crude  protein,  over  one-half  of  the  starchy  com- 
ponents, and  only  about  one-fourth  of  the  fiber  of  the  entire  plant. 
Headden,  of  the  Colorado  station,9  concludes  from  his  studies 
of  the  alfalfa  plant,  "  that  the  minimum  loss  from  the  falling  of 
leaves  and  stems  in  successful  hay-making  amounts  to  from  15  to 
20  per  cent,  and,  in  case  where  the  conditions  have  been  unfavorable, 
to  as  much  as  60  per  cent  or  even  66  per  cent  of  the  dry  crop.  For 
each  1700  pounds  of  hay  taken  off  the  field  at  least  300  pounds 
of  leaves  and  small  stems  are  left,  and  in  very  bad  cases  as  much  as 
1200  pounds  may  be  left  for  each  800  pounds  taken/'  These  are 
lost  for  feeding  purposes,  but  are  returned  to  the  soil,  whose  supply 
of  humus  and  valuable  fertilizer  ingredients  they  increase,  and  thus 
improve  its  crop-producing  power. 

When  hay  is  exposed  to  rain  or  to  sultry  weather,  important 
losses  occur  through  leaching  and  fermentations.  The  Colorado 
station  made  analyses  of  samples  of  alfalfa  hay  exposed  to  rainy 
and  damp  weather  for  15  days  after  cutting,  during  which  time 
1.76  inches  of  rain  fell  in  three  showers.  Comparing  the  composi- 
tion of  this  hay  with  that  of  hay  from  the  same  field  cut  the  same 
day  but  immediately  dried  in  an  air-bath,  the  results  shown  in  the 
following  table  were  obtained : 

Percentage  Composition  of  Dry  Matter 


* 

Ash 

Crude 
fiber 

Crude 
fat 

Crude 
protein 

Nitrogen- 
free 
extract 

Hay  cured  in  an  air-bath  .  . 
Hay  exposed  to  rain  

12.18 
12.71 

26.46 
38.83 

3.94 
3.81 

18.71 
11.01 

38.71 
33.64 

The  damage  to  the  hay  was  due  partly  to  mechanical  losses  from 
leaves  and  tender  parts  becoming  brittle  and  breaking  off,  but 
largely  to  the  loss  of  protein,  nitrogen-free  extract,  soluble  mineral 
components,  and  aromatic  principles,  through  fermentations  and 
exposure  to  rain.  The  removal  of  the  latter  greatly  decreases  the 
flavor  and  palatability  of  the  hay  to  stock;  such  damaged  alfalfa 
hay  is  not  likely  to  be  worth  more  than  one-half  as  much  as  good, 
well-cured  hay. 


Colorado  Bulletins  35  and  110. 


60  PRINCIPLES  OF  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 

What  has  been  said  in  regard  to  alfalfa  applies  with  equal  force 
to  other  leguminous  crops  and  also,  to  some  extent,  to  other  hay 
crops.  These  losses  arise  from  two  sources,  fermentations  and 
respiration  in  the  plant  cells,  both  of  which  are  favored  by  warm, 
damp  weather.  Coarse  plants  with  thick  stems,  the  cells  of  which 
are  not  so  rapidly  killed  on  drying,  like  Indian  corn  and  the  sor- 
ghums, lose  more  feed  materials  from  the  sources  given  under  un- 
favorable weather  conditions  than  fine-stemmed  plants  like  the  com- 
mon grasses  that  are  readily  dried.  This  explains  how  corn  fodder 
left  to  cure  in  shocks  will  lose  about  10  per  cent  of  dry  matter,  even 
under  ideal  weather  conditions,  if  standing  in  the  field  or  kept 
under  roof  for  a  period  of  a  month  or  more.  Corn  shocks  of  differ- 
ent sizes  left  for  some  months  in  the  dry  climate  of  Colorado  lost 
from  one-third  to  over  one-half  of  their  dry  matter,  the  losses 
increasing  with  the  size  of  the  shocks.10  In  work  by  the  author  in 
Wisconsin  which  was  continued  for  four  years,11  the  average  losses 
of  dry  matter  and  crude  protein  in  carefully  shocked  fodder  corn 
left  in  the  field  from  one  to  several  months  amounted  to  about  24 
per  cent;  similar  results  have  been  obtained  in  investigations  con- 
ducted at  a  number  of  other  experiment  stations. 

Since  losses  like  those  given  will  occur  in  case  of  corn  cured 
under  cover  with  all  possible  care,  it  is  evident  that  the  average 
losses  of  dry  matter  in  field-cured  fodder  corn  given  in  the  preceding 
cannot  be  considered  exaggerated,  but  must,  on  the  contrary,  be  too 
low  to  apply  to  ordinary  farm  conditions,  as  a  careful  study  of  the 
various  experiments  will  readily  show  (see  p.  108). 

The  Siloing  Process.  —  The  most  important  method  of  prepara- 
tion of  feeding  stuffs,  next  to  hay-making,  is  by  the  siloing  process. 
The  subject  of  the  silo  and  silage  will  be  discussed  later  (p.  149),  and 
we  shall  here  refer  only  to  the  changes  that  occur  in  the  composi- 
tion of  the  plants  during  the  process  in  so  far  as  they  affect  the 
nutritive  -values  of  the.  feeding  stuffs.  During  the  early  stages  of 
building  silos  in  this  country  very  large  losses  occurred  in  them, 
due  mainly  to  the  form  of  silos  built.  These  were  square  and 
shallow  structures  which  were  poorly  adapted  for  silage-making: 
First,  because  considerable  air  was  left  in  the  siloed  mass  and  ad- 
mitted from  corners  and  leaky  walls;  and,  second,  because  large 
amounts  of  silage  spoiled  while  being  fed  out.  The  losses  in  feed 
materials  found  in  the  early  silo  experiments,  therefore,  would 
often  go  up  to  fifty  per  cent,  and  such  results  were  also  generally 


Report  1891,  p.  227;  Agr.  Science,  vol.  10,  p.  299. 


CHEMICAL  COMPOSITION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 


61 


obtained  in  the  cases  where  silage  was  made  in  pits  in  the  ground 
or  in  open  stacks.  In  modern  tall,  round  silos  the  losses  of  dry 
matter  have  been  greatly  reduced,  and  under  ordinary  favorable 
conditions  will  not  amount  to  more  than  ten  per  cent.  As  in  the 
case  of  field-curing  of  corn,  this  loss  falls  primarily  on  the  carbo- 
hydrates and  the  protein  substances,  changing  these  in  part  into 
organic  acids  and  amides,  respectively,  so  that  the  resulting  silage 
is  higher  in  fiber  and  lower  in  nitrogen-free  extract  than  the  ma- 
terial from  which  it  was  made.  The  following  average  analyses 
of  green  fodder  corn  and  corn  silage  will  illustrate  this  f act : 

Average  Composition  of  Green  Fodder  Corn  and  Corn  Silage,  in  Per  Cent 


Dry 
matter 

Ash 

Protein 

Fiber 

Nitrogen- 
free 
extract 

Fat 

Green  corn  fodder  . 
Corn  silage 

79.3 
79.1 

1.2 
1.4 

1.8 
1.7 

5.0 
6.0 

12.2 
11.0 

.5 

8 

There  is  a  slight  decrease  in  the  percentage  of  protein  in  silage 
as  compared  with  fodder  corn,  but  there  is  a  further  change  in  the 
protein  compounds  during  the  siloing  process  which  does  not  appear 
from  the  average  analyses  given.  Through  the  action  of  enzymes 
and  bacteria,  a  portion  of  the  protein  of  the  fodder  corn  undergoes 
cleavage  in  the  silo,  and  silage,  therefore,  contains  a  considerably 
larger  proportion  of  non-albuminoid  or  amide  nitrogen  than  the 
green  corn  (p.  11).  The  latter  has  been  found  to  contain,  on  the 
average,  27  per  cent  of  amide  nitrogen,  against  40  per  cent  or  over 
in  silage. 

Effect  of  Storage. — Changes  in  the  chemical  composition  occur 
in  many  feeding  stuffs  in  storage.  These  are  often  quantitatively 
too  slight  to  appear  in  statements  of  chemical  analyses,  but  still 
are  of  considerable  importance,  as,  e.g.,  in  the  case  of  new  and  old 
oats,  corn,  hay,  etc.  These  and  many  other  feeds  lose  moisture  on 
being  stored;  changes  also  occur  in  the  composition  of  the  dry 
matter,  which  are  not  yet  clearly  understood  in  many  cases.  New 
oats  thus  readily  cause  digestive  disorders,  such  as  colic,  when  fed 
to  horses,  and  it  cannot  be  supposed  that  the  difficulty  arises  merely 
from  the  fact  that  such  oats  contain,  say  10  per  cent  more  moisture 
.than  old  oats.  In  all  probability  the  enzymes  present  in  the  oats, 
of  which  three  different  ones  have  been  identified,  cause  certain 
changes  in  the  composition  of  the  dry  matter  during  storage; 
although  not  measurable  by  the  ordinary  methods  adopted  in  feed 


62  PRINCIPLES  OF  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 

analyses,  these  changes  are  still  of  great  importance,  and  transform 
the  oats  from  an  undesirable  feed  to  the  best-relished  and  most 
effective  available  horse  feed. 

Changes  in  the  chemical  composition  also  occur  in  the  storage 
of  hay,  potatoes,  and  root  crops,  like  sugar  beets,  mangels,  etc. 
These  are  caused  by  the  respiration  of  the  plant  cells  and  result  in 
losses  of  valuable  feed  components,  especially  of  soluble  carbo- 
hydrates. As  a  rule,  these  changes  do  not  affect  the  palatability  of 
the  feeds,  but  they  do  decrease  their  general  nutritive  value  (p.  134). 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  the  various  factors  that  influence  the  quality  and  yield  of  crops, 

and  state  their  relative  importance. 

2.  At   what   stage   of   growth   does   Indian   corn    contain    relatively   most 

protein ;   fat ;    carbohydrates  ? 

3.  Give   the   approximate   increase    in    dry   matter    and   carbohydrates    in 

Indian  corn  between  tasselling  and  maturity. 

4.  State  the  changes  that  occur  in  the  composition  of  alfalfa  from  buds 

forming  to  full  bloom. 

5.  When  does    (a)    Indian  corn,   (6)   alfalfa  yield  the  largest  amounts  of 

dry  matter  and  digestible  matter  per  acre? 

6.  State  the  losses  that  are  likely  to  occur  in  making  alfalfa  hay. 

7.  Give  the  losses  that  are  likely  to  occur  in  curing  Indian  corn  fodder; 

also  the  losses  in  the  siloing  process. 


CHAPTER  VII 


CONDITIONS  AFFECTING  THE  DIGESTIBILITY  OF 
FEEDING  STUFFS 

WE  have  already  shown  the  effect  of  advanced  stages  of  develop- 
ment of  plants  on  their  digestibility.  Some  other  factors  that 
influence  the  digestibility  of  feeding  stuffs  will  now  be  considered. 

Different  Classes  of  Farm  Animals. — As  might  be  expected 
from  the  differences  in  the  digestive  apparatus  of  the  various  classes 
of  farm  animals,  these  differ  somewhat  in  their  ability  to  digest  cer- 
tain feeding  stuffs.  •  Concentrated  feeds  are  digested  to  a  similar 
extent  by  nearly  all  classes  of  farm  animals,  but  this  does  not  hold 
true  in  the  case  of  coarse  feeds.  The  digestion  coefficients  for  meadow 
hay  and  oat  straw  obtained  by  Kellner  in  the  case  of  steers  and 
sheep  will  illustrate  the  differences  met  with.1 

Digestibility  of  Hay  and  Straw  by  Steers  and  Sheep,  in  Per  Cent 


Meadow  hay 

Oat  straw 

Steers 

Sheep 

Steers 

Sheep 

Dry  matter 

65 
61 
61 
64 
70 

62 
57 
57 
61 
69 

57 
32 
43 
63 
58 

47 

19 

50 
49 
49 

Crude  protein  
Fat            

Fiber  

Nitrogen-free  extract  .  .  . 

Hay  or  straw  of  the  same  origin  was  fed  to  both  classes  of  ani- 
mals in  these  experiments.  Greater  differences  are  likely  to  occur 
where  digestion  coefficients  of  feeds  of  different  origin  are  compared. 
Steers  can,  in  general,  digest  bulky,  coarse  feeds  better  than  sheep 
can,  while  with  easily  digested  feeds  only  minor  differences  occur  in 
the  digestion  coefficients  obtained  with  these  classes  of  farm  animals. 

Horses  and  other  non-ruminants  have  a  lower  digestive  capacity 
for  coarse  feeds  than  the  ruminants.  This  is  especially  true  as 
regards  the  fiber  content  of  feeds.  Through  their  more  thorough 
mastication  of  roughage,  and  the  fact  that  the  feed  is  prepared  for 
digestion  by  being  softened  in  the  paunch  previous  to  the  stomach 
digestion,  the  ruminants  are  able  to  better  utilize  the  energy  of  the 
fiber  in  coarse  feeds,  like  hay  and  straw,  than  are  horses  or  pigs. 
The  following  average  figures  for  digestibility  of  timothy,  alfalfa 


1  Experiment  Station  Record  9,  p.  509. 


63 


64 


PRINCIPLES  OF  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 


hay,  and  wheat  straw  by  horses  and  ruminants  will  show  the  extent 
of  the  differences  observed : 

Digestion  Coefficients  for  Horses  and  Ruminants,  in  Per  Cent 2 


Alfalfa  hay 

Timothy  hay 

Wheat  straw 

Horses 

Rumi- 
nants 

Horses 

Rumi- 
nants 

Horses 

Rumi- 
nants 

Protein 

73 
40 
70 
14 
58 

74 
46 
72 
40 
61 

21 
43 

47 
47 
44 

48 
50 
62 
50 
56 

28 
18 
28 
66 
21 

23 
55 
39 
36 

46 

Fiber 

Nitrogen-free  extract  
Fat 

Organic  matter     .    .... 

< 

The  coarser  and  less  valuable  a  feeding  stuff  is,  the  greater  is  the 
difference  in  the  digestibility  coefficients  obtained  with  the  two 
kinds  of  animals.  With  concentrates  no  appreciable  difference  has, 
however,  been  observed  in  the  digestibility  by  ruminants  and  other 
farm  animals :  77  per  cent  of  the  protein  of  oats  is  thus  digested  by 
sheep  and  79  per  cent  by  horses ;  the  latter  digest  76  per  cent  of  the 
protein  in  corn,  and  sheep  digest  78  per  cent.  Digestion  experiments 
with  swine  have  shown  that,  generally  speaking,  these  animals  digest 
their  feed  to  a  similar  extent  as  horses  or  ruminants.  The  differ- 
ences which  have  been  observed  in  the  digestion  coefficients  are  small 
and  more ;  likely  to  have  been  caused  by  experimental  errors  in  the 
technique  of  digestion  trials  than  by  actual  differences  in  the  digesti- 
bility of  the  feeds.  The  experimental  errors  in  determining  the 
digestibility  of  concentrates  are  considerable,  especially  in  the  case 
of  animals  that  cannot  be  fed  such  feeds  alone,  and  it  is  only  by 
repeated  digestion  trials  under  different  conditions  as  to  animals, 
amounts  fed,  combinations  with  other  feeds,  etc.,  that  the  results  can 
be  considered  trustworthy.  Kellner  concluded  from  his  investiga- 
tions of  this  point : 3  "  When  only  two  experiments  are  made,  one 
with  hay  and  the  other  with  hay  and  wheat  bran,  there  is  danger  that 
'the  coefficients  of  digestibility  obtained  by  the  most  careful  work  may 
vary  from  the  actual  by  =t  9  per  cent  in  the  case  of  crude  protein, 
=±=6.4  per  cent  with  the  nitrogen-free  extract,  ±  19.6  per  cent  with 
the  crude  fat,  and  =*=  38.5  per  cent  with  the  crude  fiber.  It  is  plain 
from  this  that  single  experiments  give  results  of  very  uncertain  value, 
which  are  almost  entirely  lacking  in  significance.  Weight  can  be 
•only  given  to  the  averages  of  many  experiments,  and  only  such 
averages  can  be  regarded  as  decisive." 

2  Massachusetts  Report,  1911, 

8  Experiment  Station  Record,  voK  9,  p.  513. 


DIGESTIBILITY  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS  65 

Even  swine  are  able  to  digest  considerable  amounts  of  vegetable 
fiber.  Direct  experiments  have  shown  that  the  digestion  coefficients 
for  fiber  obtained  with  this  class  of  animals  are  as  follows:  In  the 
case  of  wheat  bran,  39  per  cent;  wheat  shorts,  37  per  cent;  barley, 
49  per  cent;  corn,  39  per  cent;  corn  and  cob  meal,  39  per  cent; 
cracked  wheat,  60  per  cent;  pea  meal,  78  per  cent;  green  oats  and 
vetch,  49  per  cent.  These  figures,  in  most  cases,  compare  favorably 
with  the  average  digestibility  coefficients  for  the  respective  feeds 
obtained  with  steers  or  sheep. 

Breeds. — Different  breeds  of  the  same  class  of  farm  animals  do 
not  appear  to  differ  appreciably  in  their  digestive  capacity,  nor  do 
individual  animals  of  the  same  breed  differ  in  this  respect,  so  long 
as  the  animals  compared  are  in  good  health  and  have  good  teeth. 
Yery  young  as  well  as  old  animals  are  handicapped  in  eating  whole 
dry  grains,  on  account  of  their  inability  to  chew  their  feed  well,  and 
it  should  be  fed  wet  or  ground  to  such  animals.  Differences  in  the 
digestibility  of  feeds  have  sometimes  been  found  in  the  case  of 
individual  animals,  but  there  does  not  seem  to  be  any  regularity  in 
the  variations  observed,  and  these  are,  therefore,  likely  to  be  acci- 
dental and  due  to  errors  of  experimentation. 

Age. — Age  does  not  seem  to  affect  the  digestive  capacity  of 
animals  whose  digestive  apparatus  is  fully  developed,  nor  does 
a  fair  amount  of  work  influence  the  digestion,  provided  that  this  is 
done  at  a  moderate  rate,  like  ordinary  work  of  horses,  mules,  and 
oxen.  Work  done  at  a  rapid  pace,  on  the  other  hand,  is  likely  to 
diminish  the  digestibility  of  the  rations  fed. 

The  various  conditions  bearing  on  the  chemical  composition  of 
plants  which  have  already  been  discussed  are  also  of  importance  in 
so  far  as  they  affect  the  digestibility  of  plants.  Among  other  factors 
that  might  be  supposed  to  influence  the  digestibility  of  feeding 
stuffs,  besides  those  already  mentioned,  are  the  following: 

Quantity  of  Feed. — The  quantity  of  feed  does  not  appear  to 
appreciably  affect  its  digestibility.  It  should  be  said,  however,  that 
the  testimony  on  this  point  is  somewhat  conflicting.  The  results  of 
early  experiments  by  Wolff  and  others,  indicating  a  similar  digesti- 
bility of  small  and  large  rations,  have  not  been  corroborated  by  more 
recent  work.  It  seems  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  digestive  fluids 
will  vary  to  a  certain  extent,  both  in  composition  and  amounts,  with 
the  character  of  the  rations  fed,  in  case  of  herbivora,  as  found  to  be 
the  case  with  carnivora  in  the  brilliant  investigations  by  the  Russian 
physiologist  Pavlov.4  There  is  some  evidence  with  herbivora  which 

4 "Work  of  the  Digestive  Glands,"  London,  1910. 
5 


66 


PRINCIPLES  OF  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 


points  the  same  way,  but  it  cannot  be  said  to  be  conclusive  as  yet.5 
The  question  must  be  considered  still  open  as  to  whether  a  scant 
ration  is  digested  more  completely  by  farm  animals  than  an  ample 
ration.  This  matter,  however,  is  more  of  scientific  interest  than  of 
practical  importance,  as  no  stockman  would  want  to  starve  or  under- 
feed his  animals  for  the  purpose  of  possibly  securing  thereby  a  more 
complete  percentage  utilization  of  the  feed.  He  would  know  that 
stock  so  fed  can  never  yield  profitable  returns. 

Drying  and  Preparation  of  Feeding  Stuffs. — The  mere  drying 
of  green  or  succulent  feeds,  where  this  is  not  accompanied  by  me- 
chanical or  fermentative  losses,  does  not  alter  their  digestibility. 
According  to  Jordan,  four  of  six  feeds  experimented  with  on  this 
point  showed  a  slight  difference  in  favor  of  the  dried  feeds,  while 
two  gave  the  opposite  result.  It  is  very  .certain,  however,  that  as  dry- 
ing and  curing  of  green  fodder  is  carried  on  under  ordinary  field 
conditions  there  are  considerable  losses  from  abrasion  of  dry  and 
brittle  parts,  and  the  remaining  feed  is,  therefore,  relatively  richer 
in  coarse  parts,  and  its  digestibility  lower  than  that  of  the  green 
feed.  Attention  was  called  to  this  fact  in  the  discussion  of  the 
feeding  value  of  alfalfa  hay.  The  losses  from  these  sources  are  per- 
haps greater  in  the  case  of  leguminous  hay  crops  than  with  other 
kinds  of  hay,  but  they  are  appreciable  in  all  cases  where  the  harvest- 
ing of  the  hay  has  been  delayed  until  past  bloom,  or  where  the  curing 
has  been  done  under  conditions  that  would  render  the  hay  very  dry 
and  cause  a  loss  of  leaves  and  tender  parts  of  the  plant.  As  a  result, 
hay  or  other  dried  feeds  have  generally  been  found  to  have  a  lower 
digestibility  than  the  original  green  or  wet  material.  The  following 
table  of  digestion  coefficients  shows  this  to  be  true.  As  the  green 
and  dry  feeds  of  the  same  kind  were  not,  as  a  rule,  of  similar  origin, 
the  two  sets  of  figures  given  are  only  comparable  in  a  general  way. 
Digestion  Coefficients  for  Green  and  Dry  Feeding  Stuffs,  in  Per  Cent 


Organic 
matter 

Protein 

Fiber 

Nitrogen- 
free 
extract 

Fat 

Timothy  grass  .  .  .  
Timothy  hay 

66 
64 

72 
68 

64 
66 

68 
63 

52 
49 

Corn  fodder,  dent,  mature 
Corn  fodder  dry 

74 
66 

63 

45 

66 
63 

81 
73 

80 
70 

Clover  green 

61 

65 

53 

72 

63 

Clover  hay 

55 

58 

54 

65 

56 

Alfalfa  green 

61 

74 

43 

72 

39 

Alfalfa  hay 

62 

74 

46 

72 

40 

Brewers'  grains,  wet  
Brewers'  grains,  dried  .... 

63 
64 

73 
71 

40 

48 

62 
60 

86 
88 

5  See  Illinois  Bulletin  172. 


DIGESTIBILITY  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS  67 

Grinding,  Cutting,  or  Rolling  of  Feeds. — The  digestibility  of 
feeding  stuffs  is  not,  as  a  general  rule,  materially  altered  by  special 
methods  of  preparation,  like  cutting,  grinding,  cracking,  or  rolling. 
An  exception  to  this  rule  is  found  in  the  case  of  old  or  very  young 
animals  that  cannot  chew  their  feed  well,  and  with  small,  hard  seeds 
that  would  largely  pass  through  the  digestive  tract  unbroken  and 
would  not  be  acted  upon  by  the  digestive  fluids  of  the  body.  When 
used  for  feeding  farm  animals,  grains  like  wheat,  barley,  rye,  kafir 
corn,  etc.,  are  therefore  usually  ground,  and  other  cereals  (corn, 
oats)  are  ground  only  when  fed  to  young  animals  or  to  very  old 
animals,  so  as  to  insure  a  maximum  digestibility.  If  whole  or 
broken  grain  reappears  in  the  dung  of  the  animals,  it  is  evident  that 
the  feed  had  better  be  ground,  or,  if  already  ground,  that  too  much  is 
fed,  and  the  allowance  should  in  that  case  be  reduced. 

Hay  and  other  roughage  is  sometimes  run  through  a  cutter 
before  being  fed  out  when  of  poor  quality,  or  for  mixing  with  other 
feeds,  so  that  the  animals  may  eat  as  much  as  possible  thereof.  In 
the  western  States  alfalfa  hay  is  frequently  cut  for  steers  and  dairy 
cows.  This  is  considered  as  economical  practice,  both  because  it 
insures  the  hay  being  eaten  without  waste  and  because  it  means  a 
considerable  saving  of  storage  room.  It  is  a  common  practice  in 
European  countries  to  feed  cut  straw  mixed  with  grain  to  horses  and 
occasionally  to  other  farm  animals,  so  as  to  induce  them  to  consume 
a  considerable  amount  of  cheap  roughage. 

Soaking,  Cooking,  or  Steaming  Feed. — The  digestibility  of 
feeding  stuffs  is  not  influenced  by  soaking  or  wetting  these  prior  to 
feeding  time,  but  a  depression  of  the  digestion  coefficients  for  protein 
will  occur  when  the  feeds  are  boiled,  steamed,  or  otherwise  subjected 
to  high  temperatures.  The  method  of  cooking  feed  was  at  one  time 
much  practised,  especially  among  European  farmers,  but  it  has  now 
been  generally  abandoned,  except  in  the  case  of  feeding  swine. 
Numerous  trials  conducted  at  experiment  stations  have  shown  that 
it  does  not,  in  general,  pay  to  cook  feed  for  farm  stock.  There  is 
a  certain  advantage  in  cooking  potatoes  and  in  steaming  cut  straw 
and  hay  of  poor  quality  when  intended  for  feeding  swine,  from  the 
fact  that  the  cell  tissues  are  softened  by  the  process,  and  the  non- 
nitrogenous  components  are  thus  acted  upon  more  thoroughly  by  the 
digestive  fluids. 

This  does  not  refer  to  the  protein  substances,  however,  as  these 
are  rendered  less  digestible  through  the  action  of  heat.  The  per- 
centage of  digestible  protein  in  fresh,  wet  beet  pulp  was  thus  found 
by  artificial  digestion  to  be  60.1  per  cent;  after  being  dried  at 


68 


PRINCIPLES  OF  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 


75°  to  80°  C.,  58.7  per  cent,  and  after  drying  at  125°  to  130°  C., 
41.1  per  cent.  'The  author  found  the  digestion  coefficient  for  protein 
in  old-process  linseed  meal  by  artificial  digestion  to  be  94.3  per 
cent,  and  for  new-process  meal,  in  the  manufacture  of  which  higher 
temperatures  are  used,  84.1  per  cent.6  The  average  coefficients 
for  the  two  kinds  of  oil  meal  obtained  in  American  digestion 
trials  with  ruminants  are  89  and  85  per  cent,  respectively.  A  similar 
depression  in  the  digestibility  of  protein  in  feeding  stuffs  resulting 
from  application  of  heat  has  been  observed  in  digestion  trials  on 
farm  animals  for  meadow  hay,  corn  silage,  vetch  silage,  wheat  bran, 
and  dried  beet  pulp,  and  in  artificial  digestion  trials  with  many 
human  foods  as  well  as  with  cattle  feeds. 

The  Siloing  Process. — From  what  has  already  been  said,  we 
should  not  expect  that  the  siloing  process  will  appreciably  affect  the 
digestibility  of  feeding  stuffs,  since  the  heat  generated  in  the  silo 
fermentation  will  rarely  exceed  60°  C.  (140°  F.).  The  following 
average  digestion  coefficients  for  three  kinds  of  silage  will  show  the 
influence  of  the  siloing  process  as  regards  digestibility : 

Digestion  Coefficients  for  Green  Fodders  and  Corresponding  Silage,  in  Per  Cent 


Dry 

matter 

Protein 

Fiber 

Nitrogen- 
free 
extract 

Fat 

Corn  fodder,  dent,  mature 
Corn  silage,  dent,  mature 

Clover  green  

72 
70 

61 

54 
51 

65 

59 
65 

53 

75 
71 

72 

75 

82 

63 

Clover  silage  

45 

35 

48 

45 

45 

Soybeans 

67 

78 

45 

77 

55 

Soybean  silage 

67 

66 

53 

65 

57 

Only  a  few  determinations  of  the  digestibility  of  the  last  two 
feeds  have  been  made  so  far,  and  the  decrease  in  the  digestibility  of 
these  crops  in  the  silo  may  be  found  less  important  than  now  shown, 
when  as  much  work  has  been  done  with  them  as  with  corn  silage.  It 
is  evident,  however,  that  no  improvement  in  digestibility  can  be 
expected  in  siloing  feeding  stuffs ;  the  favorable  results  obtained  in 
feeding  silage  as  compared  with  dried  forage  must,  therefore,  be  due 
to  the  relatively  small  losses  of  feed  materials  occurring  in  the  silo- 
ing process  as  compared  with  the  curing  of  fodder  or  hay,  and  to  the 
palatability  and  beneficial  effects  of  silage  on  the  health  of  the 
animals. 

6  Wisconsin  Report,  1895,  p.  75. 


DIGESTIBILITY  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS  69 

Influence  of  Different  Nutrients — Carbohydrates. — It  was 
found,  during  the  early  studies  of  nutrition  problems  with  farm  ani- 
mals, that  the  digestibility  of  a  ration  was  appreciably  decreased  by 
the  addition  of  large  quantities  of  carbohydrates;  the  effect  was 
noticed  when  more  than  10  per  cent  of  the  dry  substance  of  a  ration 
was  composed  of  soluble  or  other  carbohydrates,  and  was  especially 
marked  as  regards  the  digestion  coefficients  for  protein,  fiber,  and 
nitrogen-free  extract.  Potatoes,  roots,  or  corn  will  cause  such  a 
depression  in  the  digestibility  when  added  to  rations  of  wider  nutri- 
tive ratios  than  1:8;  the  wider  the  nutritive  ratio  is,  the  greater  will 
the  depression  be.  If  the  protein  content  of  a  ration  be  increased 
with  the  allowance  of  carbohydrates,  the  depression  in  the  digesti- 
bility of  protein  is  decreased.  High-protein  feeds  may,  therefore, 
be  fed  with  starchy  coarse  feeds,  like  hay  or  straw,  without  affecting 
their  digestibility,  but  starchy  feeds,  like  roots  and  tubers,  cannot  be 
fed  in  larger  proportions  than  15  per  cent  of  the  ration,  calculated 
on  the  total  dry  matter  content,  without  decreasing  its  digestibility. 

The  Massachusetts  station  lately  corroborated  these  results  of 
early  investigators  and  showed  that  molasses  and  molasses  feeds 
have  a  similar  effect  on  the  digestibility  of  the  hay,  as  given  above 
in  the  case  of  potatoes  and  roots.7  When  molasses  constituted  more 
than  20  per  cent  of  the  dry  matter  of  a  ration  of  hay  and  gluten  feed, 
a  marked  depression  in  the  digestibility  of  the  ration  was  observed. 

Fat  (oil). — A  moderate  amount  of  oil  added  to  a  ration  for 
cows,  say  one-half  to  one  pound  daily  per  1000  pounds  live  weight, 
exerts  a  favorable  influence  on  its  digestibility,  but  if  larger  quanti- 
ties are  fed,  the  nutritive  ratio  of  the  ration  becomes  very  wide,  with 
a  resulting  depression  in  the  digestibility;  more  can  be  fed  in  the 
form  of  the  oil-bearing  seeds,  e.g.,  flaxseed,  than  clear  oil  without 
seriously  affecting  the  digestibility  of  the  ration  or  the  appetite  of 
the  animals.  A  heavy  feeding  of  oil,  even  if  it  were  economical,  is 
not  advantageous,  because  it  is  likely  to  cause  a  loss  of  appetite. 

Protein. — An  addition  of  easily  digestible  protein  substances  to  a 
ration  does  not  influence  its  digestibility  in  any  way.  In  experiments 
with  pigs  in  which  potatoes  with  varying  quantities  of  meat  flour 
were  fed  the  crude  protein  of  the  meat  was  completely  digested,  while 
the  proportion  of  potatoes  digested  remained  unchanged.  Protein 
added  to  a  ration  not  only  does  not  affect  the  digestibility  of  the 
basal  ration,  but  will  counteract  any  depression  in  digestibility  that 
might  be  caused  by  the  addition  of  large  quantities  of  soluble  carbo- 
hydrates, as  has  been  stated.  It  has  been  found,  in  general,  in  ex- 

7  Report  1909,  part  i,  pp.  82-131. 


70  PRINCIPLES  OF  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 

periments  with  ruminants,  that  the  best  conditions  for  the  digestion 
of  rations  fed  are  found  when  these  contain  about  one  part  of  diges- 
tible protein  for  every  eight  parts  of  digestible  non-nitrogenous 
substances  (including  fat  multiplied  by  2.25).  In  the  case  of  swine 
a  depression  in  the  digestibility  of  carbohydrates  will  not  occur  until 
starch  has  been  added  in  sufficient  quantities  to  bring  the  nutritive 
ratio  of  the  ration  down  to  1 :  12,  and  the  digestibility  of  the  crude 
protein  was  not  affected  by  a  ratio  of  1:9.  The  result  of  experi- 
mental work  shows  that  the  maximum  nutritive  effect  of  a  ration 
can  be  obtained  only  when  the  relation  between  the  digestible  protein 
and  non-protein  (the  nutritive  ratio)  lies  within  certain  limits  that 
may  not  be  outside  of  1 :  8  in  the  case  of  ruminants  and  1 :  9  to  12 
in  the  case  of  pigs. 

Other  Components. — The  addition  of  free  acids,  like  sulfuric 
or  lactic  acid,  will  not  influence  the  digestibility  of  a  ration  or  of 
its  components.  Since  there  are  large  amounts  of  free  organic  acids, 
like  lactic,  acetic,  and  butyric  acids,  in  silage,  particularly  of  the 
first  two  acids,  this  result  is  important.  It  is  not  recommended, 
however,  to  give  such  feeds  in  large  quantities  to  cows  whose  milk  is 
used  for  infant  feeding,  or  for  feeding  young  stock,  as  they  have  a 
tendency  to  cause  looseness  of  the  bowels. 

The  effect  of  many  other  materials  on  the  digestibility  of  feeding 
stuffs  has  been  investigated,  like  calcium  carbonate,  common  salt 
(sodium  chloride),  and  other  mineral  salts.  In  general,  no  influence 
on  the  digestibility  of  feeds  has  been  observed  in  experiments  con- 
ducted for  the  study  of  these  problems.  A  moderate  amount  of  com- 
mon salt  will  improve  the  palatability  of  a  feed,  however,  and  may 
cause  an  animal  to  eat  more  and  thus  give  better  returns,  if  this  is 
adapted  to  the  specific  purposes  for  which  it  is  kept.  A  good  dairy 
cow,  e.g.,  if  stimulated  to  consume  larger  amounts  of  feed  than  be- 
fore, will  respond  to  the  more  liberal  feeding  by  an  increase  in  her 
milk  production,  while  a  cow  not  bred  consistently  "  along  dairy 
lines,"  with  a  view  to  securing  a  large  milk  production,  will  put  on 
body  fat  under  similar  conditions,  and  the  milk  yield  will  be  likely  to 
decrease  as  a  result. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How  do  steers  and  sheep  differ  in  their  ability  to  digest    (a)    coarse 

feeds ;    ( & )    concentrates  ? 

2.  What  is  the  main  difference  in  the  digestive  capacity  of  horses  and  cattle? 

3.  Name  the  various  factors  that  influence  the  digestibility  of  feeding  stuffs. 

4.  How  do  (a)   drying  and  (&)  cooking  affect  the  digestibility  of  protein? 

Give  some  examples. 

5.  Give  the  influence  of  different  nutrients  on  the  digestibility  of  feeding 

stuffs. 


CHAPTEE  VIII 


CALCULATION  OF  RATIONS 

QUESTIONS  relating  to  rations  for  the  various  classes  of  farm  ani- 
mals will  be  considered  in  detail  later  on,  in  the  discussion  of  feeding 
problems  connected  with  the  respective  animals.  We  shall  here  give 
the  general  method  by  which  rations  are  calculated  from  the  tables  of 
composition  and  digestibility  of  feeding  stuffs. 

The  Wolff-Lehmann  Standard. — We  shall  suppose  that  a 
milch  cow  yielding  about  20  pounds  of  milk  daily  is  to  be  fed  a 
ration  composed  of  the  following  feeds:  Hay  from  mixed  grasses, 
corn  meal,  wheat  bran,  and  oil  meal.  Experience  has  taught  us  that 
a  cow  will  eat,  on  the  average,  about  20  pounds  of  hay  daily,  with  a 
fair  allowance  of  concentrates.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  feed  concen- 
trates in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  milk  or  butter  fat  produced  by 
the  cows.  We  will  assume  that  the  cow  will  receive  as  a  trial  ration, 
in  addition  to  the  amount  of  hay  given,  three  pounds  of  corn  meal 
and  four  pounds  of  wheat  bran.  From  Table  I  in  the  Appendix  we 
learn  the  composition  of  hay,  corn  meal,  and  bran. 

Ingredients  for  a  Trial  Ration 


Dry 

matter, 
pounds 

Digestible 
protein, 
pounds 

Digestible 
carbohydrates 
and  fat, 
pounds 

100  pounds  of 

hay  contain  

84.7 

4.2 

44.9 

100  pounds  of 
100  pounds  of 

corn  meal  contain  .... 
wheat  bran  contain  .  .  . 

88.7 
88.1 

8.0 
11.9 

75.9 
47.6 

Twenty  pounds  of  hay,  therefore,  contain: 

.847  X  20=16.94  pounds  dry  matter; 

.042  X  20  =      .84  pound  digestible  protein ;  and 

.449  X  20=    8.98  pounds  digestible  carbohydrates  and  fat. 
In  the  same  way  three  pounds  of  corn  meal  will  contain: 

.887  X  3  =  2.66  pounds  dry  matter; 

.08    X  3  =    .24  pound  digestible  protein ; 

.759  X  3  =  2.28  pounds  digestible  carbohydrates  and  fat ;  and 
Four  pounds  of  wheat  bran  will  be  found  to  contain: 

3.52  pounds  dry  matter; 
.48  pound  digestible  protein,  and 

1.90  pounds  digestible  carbohydrates  and  fat. 

71 


72 


PRINCIPLES  OF  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 


We  now  have  the  composition  of  the  ration  given  as  follows : 
Results  of  First  Trial 


Dry 
matter, 
pounds 

Digestible 
protein, 
pounds 

Digestible 
carbohydrates 
and  fat,  , 
pounds 

20  pounds  hay 

1694 

84 

898 

4  pounds  wheat  bran  

3.52 

.48 

1.90 

3  pounds  corn  meal  

2.66 

.24 

2.28 

Total  

23.12 

1.56 

13.16 

Wolff-Lehmann  standard  

29.0 

2.5 

14.1 

Deficit  

5.88 

.94 

.94 

There  is,  therefore,  a  deficit  both  in  dry  matter  and  digestible 
components  in  the  ration ;  and  it  is  evident  that  we  have  to  supply  a 
high-protein  feed  in  order  to  keep  the  relation  between  the  two  classes 
of  nutrients  near  to  the  requirements  of  the  standard.  Linseed  meal 
serves  this  purpose  very  well,  and  we  may  add  2  pounds  of  this  to  the 
ration. 

Results  of  Second  Trial 


Dry 

matter 

Protein 

Digestible 
carbohy- 
drates 
and  fat 

N.  R., 

Ration  as  above           •    

23.12 

1.56 

13.16 

2  pounds  oil  meal           

1.80 

.60 

.95 

Total                    

24.92 

2.16 

14.11 

6.5 

Wolff-Lehmann  standard  

29.0 

2.5 

14.1 

5.6 

Deficit      

4.08 

.36 

.01* 

*  Excess. 

The  ration  is  still  below  the  standard  in  dry  matter  and  digestible 
protein,  especially  the  former,  but  may  be  sufficiently  close  to  the 
standard  for  all  practical  purposes.  If  we  had  to  feed  a  poorer 
grade  of  roughage  than  the  hay  given,  more  dry  matter  would  have 
to  be  supplied  in  proportion  to  the  digestible  matter,  and  the  deficit 
of  dry  matter  would  have  been  avoided  without  increasing  at  the 
same  time  the  digestible  components  of  the  ration.  The  Wolff-Leh- 
mann standards  were  framed  to  conform  especially  to  ordinary 
European  feeding  practices,  which  generally  include  some  straw  or 
low-grade  roughage  in  the  rations  fed  to  livestock. 


CALCULATION  OF  RATIONS  73 

The  ration  as  given  might  be  improved  by  feeding  a  concentrate, 
like  cotton-seed  meal,  in  the  place  of  oil  meal.  This  feed  contains 
still  more  digestible  protein  than  the  linseed  meal,  viz.,  37.6  per  cent, 
and,  by  substituting  2  pounds  of  it  for  the  linseed  meal,  the  digestible 
protein  of  the  ration  would  be  raised  to  nearly  the  requirements  of 
the  standard.  It  would  make  a  less  palatable  ration  for  cows,  how- 
ever, and  in  most  parts  of  the  country  would  render  it  somewhat 
more  expensive. 

Another  change  in  the  ration  that  would  bring  it  closer  to  the 
standard  in  digestible  protein  and  nutritive  ratio  would  be  to  replace 
one-half  of  the  wheat  bran  by  middlings,  or  one-half  of  the  corn  meal 
by  oats  or  barley.  The  desirability  of  making  these  changes  would 
depend  mainly  on  the  cost  of  the  various  feeds.  The  nutritive  effect 
of  the  ration  would  not  be  likely  to  be  materially  influenced  by  the 
changes  suggested,  except  that  it  is,  in  general,  advisable  to  feed 
a  mixture  of  several  feeds  to  dairy  cows  and  heavy-producing  animals 
rather  than  only  one  or  two,  as  it  will  increase  the  palatability  of 
the  ration  and  stimulate  the  appetite.  The  preceding  ration  is, 
however,  satisfactory  as  given  and  will  produce  good  results  "  at  the 
pail." 

Nutritive  Ratio. — We  notice  that  the  nutritive  ratio  of  the  ration 
given  is  1 :  6.5  instead  of  1 :  5.6,  as  required  by  the  standard.  It 
follows  from  what  has  been  said,  however,  that  it  is  not  important 
to  bring  the  nutritive  ratio  closer  than  this  to  the  standard. 

Up  to  recent  times  a  definite  nutritive  ratio  was  considered 
important  for  the  specific  purpose  of  feeding  in  view;  e.g.,  1 :  5.4  was 
the  required  ratio  for  milch  cows,  according  to  the  original  Wolff 
(German)  standard,  and  it  was  not  deemed  advisable  to  vary  greatly 
from  this  ratio.  Investigations  conducted  since  the  publication  of  the 
Wolff-Lehmann  standard  have  shown,  however,  that,  given  a  certain 
minimum  of  digestible  protein  in  a  ration,  its  exact  nutritive  ratio  is 
of  no  great  importance ;  but  a  liberal  supply  of  total  digestible  matter 
in  a  ration  is  important,  and  a  nutritive  ratio  of  1 :  7,  or  even  wider, 
may  prove  nearly  as  efficient  for  feeding  dairy  cows  as  a  narrow 
ration,  provided  the  former  ration  furnishes  a  more  abundant  supply 
of  digestible  nutrients.  This  applies  with  special  force  to  fattening 
animals,1  but  holds  good  also  in  the  case  of  dairy  cows  and  ether 
animals  to  which  it  was  formerly  considered  necessary  to  supply 
rations  of  especially  narrow  nutritive  ratios  in  order  to  secure  a 
large  and  economical  production. 

1  See  Kellner,  Landw,  Versuchs-Stationen,  vol.  53,  pp.  1-474. 


74 


PRINCIPLES  OF  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 


A  ration  containing  a  relatively  small  amount  of  protein  is 
spoken  of  as  having  a  wide  ratio,  e.g.,  1 :  7  or  higher,  and  one  with  a 
relatively  high  protein  content  as  having  a  narrow  nutritive  ratio, 
e.g.,  1 :  5.4  or  less.  A  medium  ratio  would  lie  between  these  limits. 
The  nutritive  ratios  of  different  feeding  stuffs  range  from  1 :  1  or 
below,  as  in  the  cases  of  dried  blood,  tankage,  cotton-seed  meal,  to 
1 :  20  or  above,  as  in  the  case  of  cornstalks,  sorghum  hay,  and  straw 
of  the  cereals.  The  former  feeds  and  others  in  the  same  class  are 
known  as  protein  feeds  or  nitrogenous  feeds,  and  the  latter  as  starchy 
or  non-nitrogenous  feeds.  The  nutritive  ratio  of  a  feed  is  of  value 
in  showing  whether  it  supplies  largely  protein  or  non-nitrogenous 
components  and  whether  one  feed  can  be  substituted  for  another 
without  change  in  physiological  effect  (see  p. .38). 

Armsby's  Energy  Values. — As  previously  stated,  the  Armsby 
standards  show  the  amount  of  digestible  true  protein  and  energy 
values  required  for  feeding  different  classes  of  farm  animals.  The 
requirements  for  maintenance  and  for  production  are  given  sepa- 
rately. For  a  dairy  cow  the  standard  thus  calls  for  the  following 
amount  of  nutrients  for  the  two  purposes : 

For  maintenance,  0.5  pound  digestible  true  protein  and  6.0 
therms  of  energy  values  per  1000  pounds  live  weight. 

For  production,  0.05  pound  digestible  true  protein  and  0.3 
therm  per  pound  of  milk  of  average  quality. 

In  the  example  given  above  the  amount  of  nutrients  to  be  fur- 
nished the  cow  would,  therefore,  be  as  follows,  assuming  the  cow 
to  weigh  1000  pounds : 

Nutrients  in  Energy  Values 


Digestible 
true  protein 
pounds 

Energy 
values, 
therms 

For  maintenance  
For  production  

.5 
10 

6.0 
60 

Total  requirements 

1.5 

12.0 

By  reference  to  Table  III  in  the  Appendix  it  will  be  found  that 
the  feeds  given  in  the  preceding  example  contain  the  following 
amounts  of  digestible  protein  and  energy  values : 


CALCULATION  OF  RATIONS 

Ration  Expressed  in  Protein  and  Energy  Values 


75 


Digestible 
true  protein, 
pounds 

Energy 
values, 
therms 

20  pounds  timothy  hay 
4  pounds  bran  
3  pounds  corn  meal  .  . 
2  pounds  oil  meal  .... 

.41 
.41 
.20 
.55 

6.71 
1.93 
2.67 
1.58 

Total 

1.57 

12.89 

Variation  from  standard 

.07 

.89 

The  agreement  between  the  standard  and  the  composition  of  the 
calculated  ration  is  as  close  as  can  be  desired  in  this  case.  No 
importance  can  be  attached  to  the  slight  excess  of  0.07  pound  in  the 
digestible  protein  in  the  ration  or  the  excess  of  energy  value,  0.89 
therm,  and  we  conclude,  therefore,  that  a  ration  like  the  one  given  is 
theoretically  sound,  and  it  will  be  found  practical  and  efficient  in 
feeding  dairy  cows  producing  a  medium  amount  of  milk,  say  20 
pounds  a  day. 

Comparison  of  Standards. — The  Wolff-Lehmann  and  Armsby 
standards  are  recommended  for  use  in  calculating  rations  by  differ- 
ent authorities,  and  both  will  be  found  valuable  for  this  purpose. 
Either  set  of  standards  has  the  advantage  over  the  other  in  certain 
points,  and  students  should  become  familiar  with  both,  so  as  to  be 
able  to  apply  in  each  case  the  particular  method  of  calculation  that 
may  best  serve  the  purpose  in  view.  We  have  seen  that  the  Armsby 
standards  are,  in  the  main,  derived  from  the  investigational  work 
done  during  the  last  quarter  of  a  century  by  German  scientists, 
largely  Kellner,  who  worked  mainly  with  mature  fattening  steers. 
Only  a  small  amount  of  research  work  relative  to  the  application 
of  the  system  of  energy  values  to  the  feeding  of  other  farm  animals 
has  been  done ;  in  case  of  some  animals,  like  sheep,  pigs,  and  poultry, 
such  work  is  entirely  lacking  (p.  51),  so  that  the  standards  based  on 
energy  values,  proposed  for  all  animals  except  fattening  cattle,  rest 
on  a  more  or  less  insecure  basis. 

The  Wolff-Lehmann  standards,  on  the  other  hand,  do  not  take 
cognizance  of  the  varying  value  of  digestible  matter  in  different 
feeding  stuffs  due  to  the  losses  of  energy  in  the  processes  of  digestion 
and  assimilation.  Rations  composed  of  feeds  that  supply  similar 
amounts  of  digestible  matter  might,  therefore,  differ  greatly  in  the 
amounts  of  net  available  energy  that  they  supply,  and  would  in  that 
case  have  a  different  feeding  value  for  maintenance  or  productive 


76  PRINCIPLES  OF  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 

purposes.  Under  ordinary  practical  conditions,  however,  rations  are 
composed  of  roughage  and  concentrates  in  about  similar  proportions, 
and  no  great  error  is  therefore  introduced  by  the  use  of  these 
standards.  They  have  been  simplified  in  this  book  by  combining 
digestible  fat  with  the  digestible  carbohydrates,  according  to  its  fuel 
value,  so  that  only  dry  matter,  digestible  protein,  and  digestible 
carbohydrates  and  fat  are  now  considered,  making  the  necessary 
calculations  very  simple.  The  fact  that  these  standards  are  based 
on  the  vast  amount  of  work  done  during  the  last  half  century  or 
more,  in  the  lines  of  chemical  analysis,  digestion  trials,  and  feeding 
experiments  with  all  kinds  of  farm  animals,  renders  them  especially 
valuable  to  both  farmers  and  students  of  feeding  problems,  and  they 
may  safely  be  taken  as  aids  to  rational  feeding,  even  though  they 
cannot  be  considered  infallible  guides. 

Limitations  of  Feeding  Standards. — Feeding  standards  are 
intended  to  be  used  only  as  gauges  by  which  the  farmer  may  estimate 
the  quantities  of  nutrients  required  by  his  stock  for  a  certain  produc- 
tion, and  are  not  to  be  followed  blindly.  Farm  animals  vary  greatly 
in  their  productive  capacity,  as  well  as  in  their  feed  requirements 
and  their  capacity  to  make  economical  use  of  their  feed ;  hence  feed- 
ing standards  can  apply  only  to  average  conditions,  a  point  which 
should  always  be  kept  in  mind  in  using  them.  In  constructing 
rations  according  to  the  standards,  several  points  must  be  considered 
besides  the  chemical  composition  and  the  digestibility  of  the  feeding 
stuffs. 

The  same  feeds  vary  greatly  in  chemical  composition  and  digesti- 
bility, as  we  have  seen ;  this  fact  renders  it  quite  unnecessary  to  make 
a  certain  combination  of  feeds  conform  absolutely  to  the  feeding 
standard,  for  we  have  no  assurance  that  the  particular  feeds  avail- 
able will  closely  correspond  to  the  average  figures  for  the  digestible 
components  given  in  tables  of  composition  of  feeding  stuffs;  in 
fact,  the  chances  are  that  they  will  vary  more  or  less  from  the  average 
data  given  in  the  tables.  Therefore,  unless  samples  of  the  feeds  on 
hand  are  analyzed  by  a  chemist,  and  digestion  trials  conducted  with 
each  feed — both  of  which  are  lengthy  and  laborious  tasks — we  can 
know  only  in  a  general  way  what  the  actual  values  of  the  available 
feeds  are.  In  view  of  this  uncertainty  as  to  the  exact  composition  of 
the  feeds,  it  is  quite  useless  to  try  to  make  a  certain  combination  of 
feeds  conform  to  a  definite  standard  within  a  few  hundredths  or 
tenths  of  a  pound.  The  standards  are  a  valuable  guide  to  the  practi- 
cal feeder  and  the  student  of  animal  nutrition,  but  it  would  be  a  mis- 
take to  look  upon  them  as  precepts  that  must  be  rigidly  adhered  to. 


CALCULATION  OF  RATIONS  77 

There  are  several  other  considerations  that  should  receive  atten- 
tion in  formulating  rations  for  farm  animals,  besides  supplying 
nutrients  in  the  right  amounts  and  proportions  and  getting  an  effec- 
tive ration  at  as  low  a  cost  as  possible.  Among  these  are : 

First,  the  feeds  must  be  palatable  to  the  animals  fed  and  must 
not  have  any  deleterious  influence  on  their  digestion  or  general  health 
or  on  the  products  which  they  furnish.  A  well-balanced  ration  for 
milch  cows  can  be  made  up  of  oat  straw  and  oil  meal,  but  it  would 
not  be  likely  to  produce  satisfactory  results,  because  of  the  large 
amount  of  roughage  the  cows  would  have  to  consume  and  the  unpala- 
tability  of  the  ration. 

Second,  the  rations  must  contain  a  fair  proportion  of  roughage 
and  concentrates ;  they  must  not  be  too  bulky  and  still  must  contain 
a  sufficient  amount  of  roughage  to  keep  up  the  rumination  of  the 
animals,  in  the  case  of  cows  and  sheep,  and  to  secure  a  healthy 
condition  of  the  animals  generally.  In  the  case  of  dairy  cows,  about 
two  pounds  of  hay  are  generally  fed  per  hundredweight,  if  this  is  the 
sole  roughage.  If  silage  is  available,  one  pound  of  hay  and  three 
pounds  of  silage  may  be  fed  per  hundredweight,  and  one  pound  of 
concentrates  for  every  three  to  five  pounds  of  milk  produced,  accord- 
ing to  the  character  of  the  roughage  and  the  quality  of  the  milk  pro- 
duced; if  a  good  quality  of  roughage  is  available,  less  grain  may  be 
fed,  and  vice  versa.  Cows  producing  milk  of  low  fat  content  should 
receive  less  grain  per  pound  of  milk  than  high  testing  cows  (see 
p.  240).  A  good  rule  for  feeding  grain  to  cows  on  mixed  hay,  corn 
stover,  corn  silage,  and  similar  low-protein  roughage  is  to  allow  as 
many  pounds  of  grain  a  day  as  the  cow  gives  pounds  of  butter  fat 
in  a  week.  Cows  receiving  a  good  grade  of  alfalfa  or  other  rich 
coarse  feeds  will  not  need  more  than  one-half  of  this  amount  of 
grain  feed. 

Third,  the  ration  should  conform  to  the  system  of  farming  fol- 
lowed, and  this  should  be  arranged  with  a  view  to  growing  on  the 
farm,  if  possible,  all  the  roughage  and  most  of  the  concentrates  which 
the  stock  are  to  receive,  so  that  the  farmer  may  be  largely  indepen- 
dent of  the  feed  market  with  its  fluctuating  prices. 

Fourth,  the  rations  are  preferably  composed  of  feeds  of  different 
origin,  so  that,  especially,  the  protein  substances  are  supplied  from 
different  sources.  The  recent  experiments  with  cows  fed  rations 
balanced  from  restricted  sources  (corn,  wheat,  or  oat  products  only) 
at  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station  2  illustrate  in  a  striking  way 
the  necessity  of  furnishing  a  variety  in  the  make-up  of  rations  for 

2  Research  Bulletin  17. 


78  PRINCIPLES  OF  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 

dairy  cows  at  least,  and  the  same  doubtless  holds  true  also  for  other 
classes  of  farm  animals.  Of  the  rations  experimented  with,  only 
those  composed  entirely  of  corn  feeds  (corn  meal,  gluten  feed,  and 
cornstalks)  proved  satisfactory  for  dairy  cows  (see  p.  166). 

Fifth,  the  local  market  prices  of  feeding  stuffs  are  of  the  greatest 
importance  in  determining  which  feeds  to  use;  the  conditions  in  the 
different  sections  of  our  continent  are  so  different  in  this  respect  as 
to  render  generalization  difficult.  As  a  rule,  nitrogenous  concen- 
trates are  the  cheapest  feeds  in  the  South  and  the  East,  and  flour- 
mill,  brewery,  and  starch-factory  refuse  feeds  the  cheapest  in  the 
Northwest.  Where  alfalfa  or  other  leguminous  crops  form  the  main 
dependence  of  farm  animals  for  roughage,  nitrogenous  concentrates 
need  not  be  fed  to  the  extent  that  is  necessary  where  farmers  depend 
on  mixed  hay,  corn  fodder,  and  other  non-nitrogenous  forage  crops 
for  feeding  their  stock. 

The  feeding  standards  express  the  physiological  requirements  of 
animals  for  a  certain  production.  The  economy  of  systems  of  feeding 
based  on  the  standards  does  not  enter  into  consideration,  nor  is  it 
possible  to  formulate  feeding  standards  of  general  or  permanent 
value  that  take  into  consideration  the  financial  side  of  the  question, 
since  the  market  prices  of  feeds  vary  in  different  places  and  at  dif- 
ferent times  in  the  same  places.  But  for  the  practical  farmer  the 
cost  of  feeds  is  a  factor  of  vital  importance.  It  is  of  little  help  to 
him  to  be  told  that  he  can  secure  a  certain  production  of  milk  or  meat 
by  a  special  system  of  feeding  if  the  prices  of  the  different  feeding 
stuffs  called  for  make  it  impossible  or  unprofitable  for  him  to  adopt 
them  in  his  feeding  operations.  However,  the  standards  place  before 
the  feeder  an  ideal  which  he  may  approach  as  nearly  as  the  special 
conditions  by  which  he  is  surrounded  will  allow.  The  relative  cost 
of  different  feeding  stuffs  must  always  be  considered,  and  the  choice 
of  feeds  with  which  to  supplement  home-grown  forage  crops  and 
grain  must  be  made  accordingly. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Explain  how  a  ration   is  calculated   according  to    (a)    the   Wolff-Leh- 

mann  standard ;   ( 6 )  the  Armsby  standard. 

2.  Discuss  the  relative  value  of  these  two  standards  for    (a)    dairy  cows; 

(6)    fattening  steers. 

3.  Formulate  rations  for  a  1000-pound  dairy  cow  producing  20  pounds  of 

4  per  cent  milk,  according  to  (a)  Wolff -Lehmann,  (6)  Armsby  stand- 
ards, using  the  following  feeding  stuffs:  Mixed  hay,  oats,  and  wheat 
middlings. 

4.  Explain  the  method  of  calculating  nutritive  ratios;  give  an  example. 

5.  State  the  limitations  of  feeding  standards,  and  give  at  least  four  points 

to  be  considered  in  formulating  rations  for  farm  animals. 

6.  What  is  the  difference  between  a  physiological  standard  and  a  practical 

feeding  standard? 


CHAPTEE  IX 

THE  FEED-UNIT  SYSTEM 

The  feed-unit  system  furnishes  a  convenient  and  practical 
method  of  determining  the  comparative  nutritive  values  of  different 
feeding  stuffs.  It  originated  in  Denmark,  and  has  been  used  there 
and  in  other  north  European  countries  during  the  last  couple  of  dec- 
ades for  comparing  the  feed  consumption  of  farm  animals  during 
certain  periods  and  the  relative  economy  of  their  production.  While 
originally  worked  out  for  dairy  cows  and  mostly  applied  to  these,  the 
system  has  also  been  adapted  to  other  classes  of  farm  .animals,  espe- 
cially swine,  calves,  and  horses. 

A  simple  single  figure  is  obtained  by  this  system  for  the  total 
feed  eaten  by  an  animal  during  a  given  period,  including  that  eaten 
on  pasture,  and  valuable  information  may  thus  be  secured  relative 
to  the  economy  of  the  production  by  a  comparison  of  the  total  feed 
consumption  and  production  of  the  animals.  The  different  feeds  are 
given  equivalent  values  according  to  the  results  of  elaborate,  care- 
fully-rconducted  feeding  experiments,  most  of  which  were  made  at 
Copenhagen  Experiment  Station.  All  feeds  are  referred  to  a  stand- 
ard, the  so-called  feed  unit,  which  is  a  pound  of  mixed  grain,  like 
corn,  barley,  wheat,  or  rye. 

Numerous  feeding  experiments,  conducted  with  the  greatest  care 
and  scientific  accuracy,  have  shown  that,  e.g.,  1.1  pounds  of 
wheat  bran  or  2.5  pounds  of  mixed  hay  of  average  quality  can  be 
substituted  to  a  limited  extent  for  a  pound  of  grain  in  ordinary 
rations  for  dairy  cows  without  causing  any  appreciable  change  in  the 
yield  or  the  composition  of  the  milk  produced  by  the  cows,  or  in- 
fluencing their  body  weight  or  general  condition.  The  quantities  of 
the  different  feeds  given,  1.1  pounds  wheat  bran  and  2.5  pounds  hay, 
are  therefore  equivalent  to  one  feed  unit.  Table  IV  in  the  Appen- 
dix gives  a  list  of  feed  units  obtained  largely  as  a  result  of  Scandi- 
navian feeding  experiments  with  cows,  supplemented  by  results  of 
American  trials  and  feeding  experience.  In  case  of  coarse  feeds, 
certain  limits  are  given  between  which  the  equivalent  values  may 
vary,  according  to  the  quality  of  the  feed;  e.g.,  a  choice  grade  of 
alfalfa  hay  will  have  a  unit  value  of  1.5 ;  i.e.,  it  would  take  1.5  pounds 

79 


80  PRINCIPLES  OF  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 

to  equal  a  pound  of  mixed  grain  in  nutritive  effect,  while  in  the  case 
of  a  poor  quality  of  this  hay  it  will  take  3  pounds  to  equal  a  feed 
unit,  etc. 

The  value  of  pasture  may  vary  between  6  and  12  units  per  day, 
according  to  the  production  of  the  cows  and  the  kind  and  the  con- 
dition of  the  pasture.  The  former  figure  may  be  applied  in  case 
of  dry  cows,  or  for  scant  or  largely  dried-up  pastures;  the  latter 
for  heavy-producing  cows  on  luxurious  pasture. 

A  simple  example  will  readily  explain  the  application  of  the 
system.  We  will  suppose  that  a  cow  ate  750  pounds  of  hay,  150 
pounds  of  wheat  bran,  and  90  pounds  of  ground  corn  during  a  cer- 
tain month. 

The  cow  consequently  received  750  divided  by  2.5,  or  300  feed 
units  in  the  hay  eaten; 

150  divided  by  1.1,  or  136  feed  units  in  the  bran,  and 

90  feed  units  in  the  corn, 

making  a  total  feed  consumption  of  526  feed  units  for  the  month. 
If  she  yielded  30  pounds  of  butter  fat  during  the  month  on  this  feed, 
she  produced  30  -r-  5.26,  or  5.7  pounds  of  butter  fat  per  100  feed 
units. 

By  the  use  of  the  unit  values  given,  the  feed  consumption  of  in- 
dividual cows  for  an  entire  year  may  be  obtained  and  compared 
with  their  production,  thus  enabling  a  farmer  to  determine  whether 
a  cow  is  a  sufficiently  high  and  economical  producer  to  remain  in 
the  herd,  and  the  net  returns  for  the  feed  which  each  cow  in  the  herd 
has  yielded.  It  also  makes  it  possible  to  compare  the  results  obtained 
in  different  herds,  and  furnishes  valuable  data  for  studies  of  the 
relation  of  feed  to  dairy  production. 

The  Feed-Unit  Standard. — The  following  feeding  standard  for 
dairy  cows,  according  to  the  feed-unit  system,  has  been  proposed  by 
Hansson,  of  the  Royal  Swedish  Academy,  for  a  1000-pound  cow  per 
day: 

For  maintenance,  0.65  pound  digestible  protein  and  6.6  feed  units. 
For  production,  0.045  pound  to'  0.05  pound  digestible  protein  and  y3 
feed  unit  per  pound  of  milk.1 

Example. — A  1000-pound  cow  received  30  pounds  silage,  8 
pounds  clover  hay,  3  pounds  corn  meal,  and  3  pounds  gluten  feed. 
How  many  feed  units  does  she  receive  in  her  feed,  and  how  many 
units  are  required  per  100  pounds  of  milk  and  per  pound  of  butter 
fat  ?  How  much  digestible  protein  and  how  many  feed  units  should 
she  receive  according  to  the  feed-unit  standard  ? 

1 "  Kontrolforen.  Arbetsfalt,"   Stockholm,   1910. 


THE  FEED-UNIT  SYSTEM 
Ration  Compared  with  Feed-Unit  Standard 


81 


Ration  fed 

Feed 
units 

Digestible 
protein, 
pounds 

Standard 

Feed 
units 

Digestible 
protein, 
pounds 

30  pounds  corn  silage  —  30  -=-6  = 
8  pounds  clover  hay  —  8^-2  = 
3  pounds  corn 

5 
4 
3 
3.3 

.42 
.57 
.23 
.64 

1.86 

Maintenance 
Production  .  . 

Total  .... 

6.6 

7.2 

.65 
1.20 

3  pounds  gluten  feed  —  3  •*-  .9  = 
Total  

13.8 

1.85 

15.3 

According  to  the  feed-unit  standard,  the  cow  should  receive  1.85 
pounds  of  digestible  protein  and  13.8  feed  units  per  day;  we  note 
that  the  ration  supplies  1.86  pounds  digestible  protein  and  15.3 
feed  units.  It  is,  therefore,  somewhat  higher  in  feed  units  than  the 
standard,  but  the  amount  of  protein  tallies  perfectly  with  that  called 
for  by  the  standard. 

The  feed-unit  system  is  simple  and  easily  applied.  It  has  been 
found  to  give  accurate  results  under  ordinary  farm  conditions,  and 
is  scientifically  well  founded,  as  has  been  shown  by  the  fact  that  the 
results  obtained  by  this  system  do  not,  as  a  rule,  vary  from  the 
methods  of  valuation  of  feeding  stuffs  based  on  their  contents  of 
digestible  matter  or  energy  values.2  At  least  so  far  as  dairy  cows 
and  swine  are  concerned,  this  system  may  be  depended  upon  to  fur- 
nish fully  as  reliable  a  guide  to  practical  feeding  operations  as  either 
of  the  two  methods  given,  and  will  doubtless  be  generally  adopted  in 
the  future  also  in  this  country,  especially  in  the'  work  of  cow-testing 
associations. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Explain  the  origin  of  the  feed-unit  system. 

2.  What  are  the  special  advantages  of  this  system,  and  to  what  classes  of 

farm  animals  is  it  especially  adapted? 

3.  How  is  the  value  of  pasturage  determined  in  this  system? 

4.  Give  the  feed-unit  standard  for  dairy  cows. 

5.  Formulate  a  ration  for  a  1000-pound  dairy  cow  according  to  this  stand- 

ard, using  the  following  feeds:   Mixed  hay,  corn  silage,  wheat  bran, 
barley,  linseed  meal. 

6.  How  does  the  ration  given  above  agree  with   the  Wolff-Lehmann   and 

Armsby  standards  for  milch  cows  with  the  same  production? 

2  Wisconsin  Circular  37,  p.  12. 


CHAPTEE  X 
RELATIVE  VALUE  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 

WE  have  seen  that  the  relative  cost  of  feeding  stuffs  is  a  matter 
of  the  greatest  importance  to  the  farmer.  If  he  has  to  buy  feeds  for 
his  stock  in  order  to  supplement  the  farm-grown  crops,  as  nearly  all 
farmers  have  to  do,  he  must  give  due  regard  to  getting  the  most  for 
his  money  in  actual  feeding  value.  He  should  be  in  position,  there- 
fore, to  ascertain  the  relative  feeding  value  of  the  available  feeds 
according  to  the  best  information  at  hand. 

The  relative  value  of  feeding  stuffs  may  be  measured  in  several 
ways:  According  to  (a)  the  market  prices  of  the  feeds;  (&)  their 
contents  of  digestible  nutrients;  (c)  their  energy  values,  and  (d) 
the  feed  units  which  they  furnish. 

Considering  first  the  market  values  of  feeds,  it  is  well  known  that 
these  are  subject  to  great  variations  and  are  influenced  by  a  number 
of  factors  which  do  not  necessarily  bear  on  the  intrinsic  feeding 
value  of  the  feeds.  To  illustrate,  alfalfa  is  as  valuable  a  feed  in 
the  western  States,  where  it  may  be  bought  at  $8  a  ton  or  less  at 
times,  as  in  the  eastern  or  central  States,  where  it  generally  com- 
mands more  than  twice  this  price;  again,  cotton-seed  meal  and 
cake  are  worth  as  much  to  the  southern  farmer  as  to  the  Pacific 
coast  feeder  or  the  European  dairyman.  But  these  latter  have  to 
pay  nearly  twice  as  much  for  it  as  the  former. 

The  question  of  cost  of  transportation  is  evidently  of  paramount 
importance  in  determining  the  market  price  of  a  feed;  another 
factor  is  the  reputation  of  a  particular  feed,  which  greatly  influences 
the  demand  for  it.  The  relative  prices  of  cotton-seed  meal  and 
linseed  meal  well  illustrate  this  fact.  In  many  sections  of  the 
country  the  former  furnishes  considerable  more  protein  at  the  same 
or  lower  prices  than  the  latter,  and  is  fully  as  good  a  feed  for  most 
purposes,  and  still  does  not  find  as  ready  sale  as  linseed  meal.  The 
market  prices  of  feeds  are  often  not  a  reliable  guide  to  their  intrinsic 
value,  and  they  also  fluctuate  greatly  in  different  places  and  in  differ- 
ent years ;  hence  any  attempt  to  gauge  the  value  of  feeds  according  to 
their  cost  is  bound  to  prove  unsuccessful.  Several  authors — and  the 
writer  among  them — have  calculated  the  commercial  values  of  pro- 
tein, fat,  and  carbohydrates  in  concentrated  feeding  stuffs  from  the 
82 


RELATIVE  VALUE  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS        83 

average  composition  and  market  prices  of  a  large  number  of  com- 
mon feeds,  and  used  the  figures  thus  obtained  for  comparisons  of  the 
cost  of  different  feeding  stuffs,  but  unless  at  least  a  dozen  different 
feeds  are  included  in  the  calculations  and  these  are  repeated  at 
frequent  intervals,  at  least  every  five  years,  the  results  obtained  are 
not  very  satisfactory.  Such  calculations  are  laborious,  and  the 
results,  as  may  be  inferred,  are  valuable  only  for  a  limited  period 
and  region.3 

Methods  of  Comparison. — The  only  methods  of  comparison 
that  have  a  general  value  are  the  three  previously  given,  based  on  the 
digestible  components  of  feeds,  their  energy  values,  or  feed-unit 
values.  The  method  of  comparison  to  be  followed  in  each  case  will 
be  explained  in  the  following  paragraphs : 

.  (a)  Digestible  Components. — The  digestible  components  of  the 
feeds  to  be  compared  are  added  together,  the  per  cent  of  digestible 
fat  being  first  multiplied  by  2.25,  and  the  sum  divided  into  the 
market  prices  for  100  pounds  of  the  different  feeds.  The  cost  per 
unit  of  digestible  matter  is  thus  obtained,  and  the  feed  or  feeds  that 
supply  a  pound  of  digestible  matter  at  the  lowest  cost  are  selected. 
This  method  furnishes  reliable  information  in  regard  to  the  com- 
parative value  of  feeds  of  the  same  kinds,  rough  feeds,  concentrates, 
roots,  etc.,  but  not  when  feeds  of  different  classes  are  compared,  on 
account  of  the  greater  losses  of  energy  in  the  digestion  of  coarse 
feeds  than  in  the  case  of  concentrates. 

(b)  Energy  Values. — The  net  energy  values  for  100  pounds  of 
the  different  feeds  are  divided  into  the  price  per  100  pounds,  and 
the  feed  or  feeds  furnishing  a  unit  of  energy  value  (therm)  at  the 
lowest  cost  thus  ascertained.    These  values  are  reliable  for  produc- 
tion of  increase  in  body  weight  in  the  case  of  fattening  steers,  and 
approximately  so  also  for  other  purposes  of  animal  production. 

(c)  Feed-unit  Values. — The  cost  of  a  feed  unit  is  determined 
by  multiplying  the  cost  per  100  pounds  by  the  feed-unit  value  of  each 
feed.    The  lowest  cost  per  feed  unit  shows  the  cheapest  feeds.    The 
origin  and  meaning  of  the  feed-unit  system  is  explained  in  another 
chapter  of  this  book  (p.  79). 

Example  1. — Given  green  corn  fodder  at  $2  per  ton;  alfalfa  hay 
at  $10  a  ton;  corn  at  60  cents  a  bushel  ($21.40  a  ton)  ;  wheat. bran 
at  $24,  and  linseed  meal  at  $30  a  ton,  which  feeds  are  most  economi- 
cal for  feeding  dairy  cows  ? 

By  reference  to  Table  I  in  the  Appendix,  we  obtain  the  following 
figures : 

3  Wisconsin  Report  8,  p.  212. 


84  PRINCIPLES  OF  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 

Example  1,  Details  of  Cost 


No. 

Feed 

Cost 
per  100 
pounds, 
cents 

Digestible 
matter 

Energy  values 

Feed  units 

Total 
pounds 

Cost 
per 
pound, 
cents 

Total 
.therms 

Cost 
per 
therm, 
cents 

Total 

Cost 
per 
unit, 
cents 

1 
2 
3 
4 
5 

10 
50 
107 
120 
150 

13.8 
53.0 
83.9 

77.7 
59.5 

.72 
.94 
1.28 
2.02 
1.93 

12.4 
34.4 

88.8 
48.2 
78.9 

.81 
1.45 
1.20 
2.49 
1.90 

8.0 
2.0 
1.0 
1.1 
.9 

0.8 
1.0 
1.07 
1.32 
1.35 

Alfalfa  hay  

Wheat  bran      

We  note  that  the  rank  of  the  different  feeds  at  the  prices  given 
is  as  follows : 

According  to  contents  of  digestible  matter,  1,  2,  3,  5,  4. 

According  to  energy  values,  1,  3,  2,  5,  4. 

According  to  feed-unit  values,  1,  2,  3,  4,  5. 

The  relative  value  of  these  feeds  does  not  differ  greatly  whether 
one  or  the  other  of  the  methods  of  calculation  be  adopted;  fodder 
corn  is  the  cheapest  feed  according  to  all  three  methods  of  calcula- 
tion ;  alfalfa  or  corn  meal  comes  next,  and  wheat  bran  and  oil  meal 
are  the  most  expensive  feeds.  Where  differences  in  the  relative  rank 
do  occur,  it  is  evident  that  the  digestible  matter  gives  an  undue 
advantage  in  the  case  of  coarse  feeds,  and  that  energy  values  give 
corn  too  much  credit  over  the  protein  feeds,  wheat  bran  and  oil  meal, 
except  when  fed  to  fattening  steers,  in  which  case  the  figures  given 
for  these  values  are  doubtless  the  best  available.  The  rank  based 
on  feed-unit  values,  on  the  other  hand,  is  likely  to  prove  the  more 
correct  in  case  of  feeding  growing  animals,  milch  cows  and  sheep. 

Example  2. — Both  cotton-seed  meal  and  linseed  meal  can  be 
bought  at  $32  a  ton,  gluten  feed  at  $25  a  ton,  and  dried  distillers' 
grains  at  $28  a  ton,  which  should  be  bought  for  feeding  dairy  cows, 
supplementary  to  corn  silage  and  clover  hay.  By  similar  methods  of 
calculation  as  before  we  have  the  following  data : 

Example  2,  Details  of  Cost 


No. 

Feed 

Cost 
per  100 
pounds, 
cents 

Digestible 
matter 

Energy  values 

Feed  units 

Total 

Cost 
per 
pound, 
cents 

Total 

Cost 
per 
therm, 
cents 

Total 

Cost 
per 
unit, 
cents 

1 
2 
3 
4 

Gluten  feed  
Distillers'  grains  
Cotton-seed  meal  

125 
140 
160 
160 

80.6 

88.6 
80.6 
77.7 

1.55 
1.58 
1.99 
2.06 

79.3 
79.2 

84.2 
78.9 

1.58 
1.77 
1.90 
2.03 

.9 
.9 

.8 
.9 

1.13 
1.26 
1.28 
1.44 

Linseed  meal  

RELATIVE  VALUE  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS  85 

As  these  feeds  are  all  high-protein  feeds  and  adapted  to  feeding 
dairy  cows,  relative  cheapness  is  the  important  consideration  in  this 
case,  and  we  note  that  the  feeds  rank  in  the  following  order  by  all 
three  methods  in  this  respect :  Gluten  feed,  distillers'  grains,  cotton- 
seed meal,  and  oil  meal.  With  the  roughage  on  hand,  corn  silage  and 
clover  hay,  the  feeds  may  be  given  preference  in  the  order  given.  If 
only  starchy  roughage  were  available,  cotton-seed  meal  or  oil  meal, 
being  richer  in  protein  than  the  two  others,  would  be  more  desirable 
feeds,  unless  their  cost  were  greatly  against  them. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Give  three  methods  by  which  the  relative  value  of  feeding  stuffs  may  be 

determined. 

2.  State  the  special  advantages  of  each  one  of  these  methods. 

3.  What  is  the  relative  value  of  the  following  feeds  for  fattening  steers,  at 

the  prices  given,  according  to  the  different  methods  stated:  Clover 
hay,  at  $12  per  ton;  cornstalks,  at  $4  per  ton;  alfalfa  hay,  at  $15 
per  ton;  shelled  corn,  at  50  cents  per  bushel;  oats,  at  $30  per  ton,  and 
wheat  bran,  at  $25  per  ton? 


CHAPTEK  XI 
MANURIAL  VALUES  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 

Fertility  in  Feeds. — When  a  farmer  buys  feed  for  his  stock  the 
fertility  which  is  contained  therein  is  often  not  taken  into  considera- 
tion, especially  in  the  central  or  western  States,  where  the  supply 
of  fertility  in  the  soil,  as  a  rule,  has  not  as  yet  been  depleted  by 
continuous  cropping.  Farmers  in  the  older  sections  of  our  country, 
and  in  the  countries  of  the  Old  World,  who  pay  out  enormous  sums 
of  money  annually  for  commercial  fertilizers,  are  more  likely  to  con- 
sider the  manurial  value  of  feeding  stuffs.  In  addition  to  furnishing 
feed  for  farm  animals,  all  plant  materials  supply  valuable  fertilizer 
ingredients  (nitrogen  and  mineral  matter)  which  largely  go  into  the 
manure  and  aid  in  restoring  the  fertility  of  the  farm  land  that  has 
been  lost  through  the  removal  of  agricultural  crops.  Under  other- 
wise similar  conditions  the  feeds  that  furnish  the  largest  quantities 
of  fertilizing  ingredients  should,  therefore,  be  selected.  We  under- 
stand by  manurial  value  of  feeds  the  value  which  these  would  have 
if  applied  directly  as  manure  on  the  land.  This  value  is  figured  on 
the  basis  of  the  amounts  and  cost  of  the  three  fertilizer  constituents, 
nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash,  which  have  definite  and  fairly 
constant  market  values.  Table  V  in  the  Appendix  shows  that  a  ton 
of  alfalfa  hay,  e.g.,  contains  44  pounds  of  nitrogen,  10  pounds  of 
phosphoric  acid,  and  34  pounds  of  potash ;  these  amounts  of  fertilizer 
constituents  would  be  worth,  at  a  low  valuation  (15  cents  per  pound 
of  nitrogen,  4  cents  per  pound  of  phosphoric  acid  and  potash),  $8.36 
(Fig.  10  ).* 

If  a  farmer  buys  a  ton  of  alfalfa  hay,  he  therefore  receives,  in 
addition  to  the  energy  for  feeding  purposes  contained  therein,  an 
amount  of  fertilizer  constituents  which  would  cost  $8.36  if  bought 
in  the  form  of  commercial  fertilizers.  In  the  same  way,  the  ferti- 
lizer value  of  Indian  corn  would  be  $5.64;  oats,  $6.63;  wheat  bran, 
$11.55 ;  linseed  meal,  $18.75,  and  cotton-seed  meal,  $23.36. 

These  figures  make  up  a  large  proportion  of  the  market  values 
of  the  feeds ;  a  study  of  them  will  show  that  the  most  expensive  feeds, 
which  are  all  high-protein  feeds,  have,  generally  speaking,  also  the 

1  Present  market  prices  vary   considerably   from  the   figures  used   in 
these  calculations. 
86 


MANURIAL  VALUES  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 


87 


highest  manurial  values.  Where  there  is  a  choice  between  different 
feeding  stuffs,  the  contents  of  valuable  fertilizer  ingredients  in  the 
feeds  should  receive  careful  consideration.  By  way  of  illustration 
we  may  bring  together  in  a  table  some  of  the  common  feeding  stuffs : 

Fertilizer  Ingredients  of  Some  Common  Feeds  Contained  in  One  Ton 


Nitrogen 

Phosphoric 
acid 

Potash 

Coarse  Feeds: 
Timothy  hay  

19 

7 

28 

Corn  fodder  

12 

8 

22 

Clover  hay  

39 

11 

37 

Alfalfa 

44 

10 

34 

Concentrates: 
Cotton-seed  meal  

135 

58 

17 

Linseed  meal  (old-process)  
Gluten  meal 

108 
110 

33 

7 

27 
1 

Dried  brewers'  grains  
Wheat  bran     .... 

80 
53 

32 

58 

4 
32 

Indian  corn  

32 

13 

8 

We  note  that  among  the  coarse  feeds  the  legumes  are  richer  than 
the  grasses,  not  only  in  nitrogen,  but  also  in  potash,  and  slightly 
so  in  phosphoric  acid.  Cotton-seed  meal,  oil  meal,  and  gluten  meal, 
among  the  concentrates,  are  all  high  in  nitrogen,  but,  unlike  the 
first  two,  gluten  meal  is  greatly  deficient  in  both  phosphoric  acid 
and  potash.  Corn  is  very  low  in  all  three  fertilizer  ingredients, 
and  brewers'  grains  are  low  in  phosphoric  acid  and  potash,  especially 
the  latter.  Feeds  of  high  fertilizer  values  should,  under  otherwise 
similar  conditions,  be  preferred  to  those  of  relatively  low  fertilizer 
value  if  they  serve  equally  well  the  purpose  in  view.  Corn  is,  there- 
fore, other  things  being  equal,  worth  less  to  the  farmer  than  is 
wheat  bran,  and  linseed  meal  and  cotton-seed  meal  are  worth  more 
than  either. 

Fertility  Retained  by  Farm  Animals. — The  amounts  of  the 
fertilizer  ingredients  of  feeding  stuffs  retained  by  farm  animals  in 
their  bodies  or  made  use  of  in  their  products  will  vary  with  different 
animals,  and  with  the  same  animals  at  different  periods  of  growth. 
The  following  table2  shows  the  proportions  of  nitrogen  and  ash 
constituents  voided  by  animals  or  obtained  in  animal  products, 
according  to  the  English  agricultural  scientists,  Lawes  and  Gilbert, 
of  the  Rothamsted  Experiment  Station : 

2Warington,  "Chemistry  of  the  Farm,"  21st  edition,  1913,  p.  214. 


88 


PRINCIPLES  OF  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 


Quantities  of  Nitrogen  and  Ash  Constituents  Voided  by  Animals  or  Obtained  in 

Animal  Products 


Per  cent  of  nitrogen 

Per  cent  of  ash  constituents 

Obtained 
as  animal 
product 

Voided 
as  liquid 
excrement 

In  total 
excrement 

Obtained  as 
live  weight 
or  milk 

Voided  in 
excrement  or 
perspiration 

Horse  at  rest  .... 
Horse  at  work  .  .  . 
Fattening  ox  .... 
Fattening  sheep.  . 
Fattening  pig  .  :  .  . 
Milch  cow 

None 
None 
3.9 
4.3 
14.7 
24.5 
69.3 

57.0 
70.6 
73.5 
79.0 
64.3 
57.4 
25.6 

100 
100 
96.1 
95.7 
85.3 
75.5 
30.7 

None 
None 
2.3 
3.8 
4.0 
10.3 
54.3 

100.0 
100.9 
97.7 
96.2 
96.0 
89.7 
45.7 

Calf  fed  on  milk  .  . 

We  note  that  milch  cows  void  in  the  total  excrement  about  75 
per  cent  of  the  nitrogen  contained  in  the  feed  and  about  90  per  cent 
of  the  ash  constituents.  Young  growing  animals  give  somewhat 
similar  quantities,  while  fattening  animals  void  about  90  per  cent 
of  nitrogen  and  96  per  cent  of  the  ash  materials  in  the  liquid  and 
solid  excrement.3  Considering  the  relation  between  the  different 
classes  of  farm  animals  on  most  stock  farms,  young  and  old,  milk- 
producing  and  fattening  animals,  etc.,  we  may  assume  that  at  least 
80  per  cent  of  the  entire  manurial  value  of  the  feeding  stuffs  fed 
on  the  farm  will  be  voided  in  the  solid  or  liquid  manure  of  the  ani- 
mals and  will  contribute  to  maintain  the  fertility  of  the  land  when 
the  manure  is  applied  thereon.  The  direct  value  of  feeding  stuffs 
for  fertilizer  purposes  is,  therefore,  obtained  by  taking  80  per  cent 
of  the  total  fertilizer  value  calculated  from  Table  V  in  the  Appendix. 

When  a  farmer  sells  a  ton  of  alfalfa  hay,  he  sells  fertilizer 
materials  that  if  purchased  in  the  form  of  common  fertilizers  would 
cost  him  over  $8.  He  sells  the  amounts  of  fertilizers  off  his  land  in 
every  ton  of  straw,  hay,  and  other  crops,  as  shown  in  the  table.  If 
he  sells  2000  pounds  of  milk  (232  gallons),  $1.97  worth  of  fertility 
leaves  the  farm  with  it ;  with  a  ton  of  butter,  38  cents ;  with  a  ton  of 
beef,  $9.06 ;  with  a  ton  of  pork,  $5.93,  etc.  According  to  Burkett, 
a  farmer  selling  hay  sells,  in  the  form  of  fertilizer  value,  one-half 
as  much  as  he  receives ;  if  he  sells  pork,  he  receives  twenty  times  as 
much  for  it  as  the  value  of  the  fertilizers  contained  in  it;  if  milk, 
forty  times,  and  if  butter,  one  thousand  times.4 

These  figures  show  plainly  that,  so  far  as  maintenance  of  the 
fertility  of  the  land  goes,  it  is  a  better  plan  for  a  farmer  to  sell 

3  Wisconsin  Report  13,  p.  270  et  seq. 
*  "  Feeding  Farm  Animals/'  p.  311. 


180      200     220 


MANURIAL  VALUES  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS  89 

animal  products  than  grain  or  hay.    The  depletion  of  fertility  from 
the  farm  is  reduced  to  a  minimum  through  the  sale  of  these  products. 

0        20      40 

COTTON-SLED  MEAL 
UNSEED   MEAL 
BUCKWHEAT  MIDDLINGS 
DRIED  DISTILLERS'  GRAINS 

MALT  SPROUTS 
GLUTEN  FEED 
DRIED  BREWERS' GRAINS: 
WHEAT  BRAN 
CLOVER  HAY 

WHEAT 

OATS 

INDIAN  CORN 

BARLEY 

TIMOTHY  HAY 

WHEAT  STRAW 

MILK 

POTATOES 

CREAM 

MANGELS 

BUTTER 

NlTRMtEN      PHOSPHORIC  AGIO      POTASH      MAWRIAL  VAUJE  PER  TON 

FIG. 10. — Manurial  value  of  feeding  stuffs  (nitrogen  valued  at  15  cents  per  pound,  phosphoric 
acid  and  potash,  4  cents  per  pound). 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Explain  what  is  meant  by  the  manurial  values  of  feeding  stuffs. 

2.  Name  some  feeds  that  are  especially  high  in  fertilizer  ingredients;  also 

some  that  are  low. 

3.  What  percentage  of  nitrogen  and  of  ash  constituents  are  voided  in  the 

total  excrement  by   (a)   milch  cows;    (&)    fattening  steers? 

4.  Why  is  it  a  poor  practice  to  sell  hay  or  straw  from  a  farm? 

5.  What  is  the  value  of  the  fertility  obtained  in  a  ton  of  milk;  a  ton  of 

pork;  a  ton  of  alfalfa  hay? 


PART  II 

DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 
A.    COARSE  FEEDS 

CHAPTER  XII 
GREEN  FORAGE  AND  HAY  CROPS 

FARM  animals  depend  on  green  feed  for  their  sustenance  for  a 
considerable  part  of  the  year,  the  period  varying  according  to  cli- 
matic conditions,  from  about  four  months  during  the  summer  time 
in  the  North  to  nearly  the  entire  year  in  the  regions  more  favored  in 
this  respect,  in  the  South  and  Southwest.  During  this  time  the 
stock,  as  a  general  rule,  receive  no  feed  but  what  they  find  growing 
in  the  pasture,  on  the  plains  or  mountain  ranges.  It  is  only  in 
sections  where  somewhat  intensive  systems  of  farming  have  been 
introduced  that  other  feed  is  provided  for  the  stock  during  this 
period,  as  in  the  case  of  dairy  cows  in  late  summer  and  fall.  Both 
because  of  the  length  of  time  during  the  year  when  farm  animals 
depend  wholly  or  mainly  on  pasture  grass  for  their  feed,  and  be- 
cause grazing  is  universal  throughout  the  country  at  some  time  of 
the  year,  pasture  grasses  form  a  most  important  source  of  feed  for 
our  livestock. 

i.  PASTURES 

Pastures. — We  distinguish  between  natural  and  artificial 
pastures.  The  former  are  self-sown  and  consist  largely  of  native 
grasses.  These  are  the  permanent  pastures  generally  found  in  hilly 
or  wooded  regions  in  the  northern  States  and  in  the  western  United 
States,  where  wild  native  grasses  cover  the  wide  plains  and  ranges. 

With  Spillman  we  may  consider  that  the  United  States  consists 
of  six  different  agricultural  sections,  each  one  of  which  is  char- 
a<^erized  by  the  growth  of  special  plants  of  agricultural  value. 
These  sections,  with  some  of  the  main  grasses  and  clovers  grown  in 
pastures  and  meadows  in  the  different  sections,  are  given  below,'1 

1.  The  Timothy  Region    (northeastern  part  of  the  United   States,  as 
far  south  as  a  line  from  Virginia  to  Kansas,  and  east  of  a  line  from  Kansas 
to  eastern  North  Dakota)  :  Timothy  mixed  with  red  clover  or  pure  seeding, 
red  top,  Kentucky  blue  grass,  orchard  grass,  fescue  grass. 

2.  The  Cotton  Belt:  Cowpeas,  Johnson  grass,  soybeans,  Bermuda  grass, 
crab  grass,  Japan  and  crimson  clover. 

1  Cyclopedia  American  Agriculture,  vol.  ii,  p.  42. 
90 


GREEN  FORAGE  AND  HAY  CROPS          91 

3.  The  Gulf  Coast  Region.-    Crab  grass,  beggar  weed,  Mexican  clover, 
velvet  bean,  carpet  grass. 

4.  The  Plains  Region:  Alfalfa,  brome  grass,  foxtail  and  broom  corn, 
millets,  sorghum. 

5.  The  Rocky  Mountain  States:    Alfalfa,  timothy  and  clover,  orchard 
grass,  wheat  and  oat  hay. 

6.  The  Pacific  Coast:    Alfalfa,  grain  hay    (wheat,  oats,   and  barley), 
timothy  and  clover,  orchard  grass,  velvet  grass. 

The  area  devoted  to  permanent  pastures  is  gradually  decreasing 
with  the  development  of  more  intensive  systems  of  agriculture 
throughout  the  country  and  the  settlement  of  the  western  ranges. 
The  highest  value  of  good  farm  land  cannot  be  reached  by  keeping 
it  in  permanent  pasture.  Arable  land  so  occupied  will  generally 
yield  only  a  fraction  of  the  feed  that  would  be  secured  by  a  more 
intensive  system  of  culture  from  annual  cultivated  or  hoed  crops 
or  perennial  legumes.  According  to  good  authorities,  an  acre  of 
alfalfa,  if  used  as  green  feed  (soiling,  p.  95),  will  give  as  much 
nutritive  forage  as  four  acres  in  permanent  pasture.  In  the  experi- 
ments conducted  at  the  Pennsylvania  station,  three  to  five  times  as 
much  digestible  feed  was  produced  per  acre  by  means  of  soiling 
crops,  e.g.,  rye  and  corn,  or  corn  and  clover,  as  by  pasturage  2 
(Fig.  11). 

Care  of  Pastures. — The  low  returns  in  feed  materials  secured 
from  permanent  pastures  are  generally  due  to  the  fact  that  they  re- 
ceive little  or  no  attention  in  the  way  of  remedial  measures;  they 
are  left  to  take  care  of  themselves  and  are  therefore  likely  to  pro- 
duce but  little  feed.  Under  a  correct  system  of  management, 
pasture  lands  are  fertilized  with  farm  manure  or  a  complete  com- 
mercial fertilizer  every  few  years,  in  the  fall  or  spring,  and  lime 
added  as  needed;  they  are  harrowed,  if  possible,  and  seeded  with  a 
mixture  of  grasses  and  legumes  in  open  places.  Weeds  are  kept 
down  by  going  over  them  with  a  mower  once  or  twice  in  the  season. 
Stock  should,  furthermore,  not  be  turned  in  early  in  the  spring, 
when  the  young  plants  would  be  seriously  injured  or  checked  in  their 
growth  by  grazing  and  tramping,  and  only  a  limited  number  of 
animals  are  pastured,  so  that  the  grass  will  -not  be  eaten  off  too 
closely  to  enable  the  plants  to  resume  a  quick  growth.  Drainage 
of  pasture  land  is  also  important,  as  a  regular  but  not  excessive 
water  supply  is  essential  to  a  healthy  and  rapid  growth  of  plants. 
The  amount  of  feed  that  pasture  land  can  supply  will  doubtless  be 
largely  increased  by  adopting  a  system  of  management  similar  to 
that  just  suggested. 

2  Pennsylvania  Report,  1889,  p.  101. 


92  DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 

In  describing  the  Roberts  pasture  at  the  Cornell  University 
Farm,  Professor  Eoberts  states  that  after  the  pasture  was  well 
established  it  carried  fully  three  times  as  many  cattle  per  acre  as  the 
average  pasture  of  the  State  of  New  York.3  The  major  factors  in 
securing  this  result  were : 

"  1.  The  clovers  were  not  allowed  to  disappear. 

"  2.  The  stock  was  not  turned  on  to  the  pasture  in  the  spring 
until  the  soil  was  well  settled  and  the  grass  well  started. 

"  3.  It  was  not  overstocked  early  in  the  season ;  the  plants  thus 
had  an  opportunity  to  tiller  and  get  a  firm  hold  on  the  soil. 

"  4.  It  was  mowed  early  in  June." 

^ftjgsgg^^«B»2l|£ggegs^HB»^y|^pKor? 


FIG.  11. — Shade  trees  and  a  running  stream  in  the  pasture  make  for  the  health  and  comfort 
of  farm  animals.    (Cornell  Station.) 

The  artificial  pastures  are  grown  in  rotation  with  other  crops; 
they  are  generally  sown  with  a  mixture  of  grasses  and  legumes,  and 
remain  in  grass  for  a  period  ranging  from  only  one  or  two  years 
to  a  series  of  years,  according  to  the  system  of  rotation  adopted. 
The  yields  of  feed  materials  obtained  from  an  acre  of  land  in  the 
case  of  these  pastures  are  also,  as  a  rule,  considerably  smaller  than 
those  secured  by  growing  annual  cultivated  or  hoed  crops. 

Pasture  Grasses. — There  are  over  one  thousand  different  spe- 
cies of  native  and  introduced  grasses'  grown  in  the  United  States  at 
the  present  time.  Of  this  number  about  fifty  are  found  on  the 
market,,  and  only  about  a  dozen  make  up  our  main  cultivated  species 
in  pastures  and  meadows. 

Among  the  more  important  tame  perennial  grasses  in  this 
country  may  be  mentioned  Kentucky  blue  grass  (or  June  grass), 
timothy,  orchard  grass,  meadow  fescue,  red  top,  smooth  brome  grass, 

8 "Pastures  in  New  York,"  Cornell  Bulletin  280. 


GREEN  FORAGE  AND  HAY  CROPS 


93 


rye  grass,  and  Bermuda  grass.  The  characteristics  and  method  of 
seeding,  special  adaptation,  and  agricultural  value  of  these  and  other 
tame  grasses  are  discussed  in  standard  works  on  agronomy  or  forage 
crops,  and  will  not  be  considered  here  (see  p.  177).  The  various 
grasses  differ  considerably  in  chemical  composition  and  feeding 
value,  and  differences  due  to  the  stage  of  development  are  also  of 
importance. 

Chemical  Composition. — The  chemical  composition  of  some  of 
the  common  pasture  grasses  is  shown  in  the  following  table : 

Composition  and  Digestibility  of  Pasture  Grasses,  in  Per  Cent 


Moisture 

Ash 

Digestible 

N.  R., 
1: 

Protein 

Carbohy- 
drates 
and  fat 

Pasture  grass  
Kentucky  blue  grass 

80.0 
65.1 
61.6 
73.0 
65.3 
73.2 
69.9 
71.7 

2.0 
2.8 
2.1 
2.0 
2.3 
2.5 
1.8 
2.1 

2.5 
2.8 
1.5 
1.2 
1.9 
1.5 
1.6 
1.3 

11.2 
21.5 
21.3 
14.5 

22.4] 
14.2 
19.7 
14.3 

4.5 
7,7 
14.2 
12.1 
11.8 
9.5 
12.3 
11.0 

Timothy  

Orchard  grass  .... 

Red  top 

Italian  rye  grass     

Meadow  fescue    

Bermuda  grass  

We  note  that  the  moisture  contents  of  pasture  grasses  range  from 
60  per  cent  to  80  per  cent,  and  in  the  case  of  very  young  plants, 
especially  of  Indian  corn  or  legumes,  it  may  even  go  over  90  per  cent. 
The  proportion  of  nutrients  that  animals  on  pasture  receive  in  the 
early  season  is,  therefore,  very  small,  and  they  have  to  consume 
large  amounts  thereof  to  maintain  their  body  weights.  Unless  they 
receive  a  feed  of  dry  roughage  in  addition,  they  will  not  be  likely  to 
increase  in  weight  or  maintain  a  fair  production  on  such  immature 
forage  crops.  Most  of  the  analyses  given  in  the  table  show  the 
average  composition  of  the  grasses  at  the  time  of  bloom,  when  they 
would  be  cut  for  hay,  while  the  pasture  grass  was  cut  and  sampled 
at  a  rather  immature  stage.  This  explains  why  the  nutritive  ratio 
of  pasture  grass  is  1 : 4.5,  while  the  ratios  of  the  other  grasses 
approach  or  exceed  1 :  10.  Timothy  is  seen  to  have  the  widest 
nutritive  ratio,  viz.,  1 : 14.2. 

Grasses  are  generally  sown  in  mixtures  with  clover  or  other 
legumes,  since  the  growing  habits  of  the  different  plants  differ,  and 
a  permanent  palatable  herbage  will  thereby  be  secured  throughout 
the  season.  Grasses  and  hay  crops,  like  other  crops,  will  yield  the 
largest  amount  of  nutritious  feed  when  grown  on  well-fertilized 


94  DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 

land.  Where  farm  manure  is  available,  it  is  generally  put  on  the 
pasture  or  meadow  during  the  fall  or  early  spring.  Artificial  fer- 
tilizers applied  in  the  fall  or  spring  make  valuable  substitutes. 
Nitrogenous  fertilizers  favor  especially  the  growth  of  the  grasses, 
while  the  clovers  and  other  legumes  are  mostly  benefited  by  potash 
and  lime  fertilizers.  There  are  many  experiments  on  record  show- 
ing that  the  application  of  fertilizers  on  grass  lands  will  give  good 
returns  in  increased  crop  yields  and  an  improved  quality  of  the  crop. 

Value  of  Pasturage. — Pasture  grasses  furnish  a  very  nutritious 
and  highly  palatable  feed  for  all  classes  of  farm  animals ;  it  is  the 
best  feed  for  milk-producing  animals  that  we  have,  and  these  pro- 
duce the  largest  amount  of  milk  when  on  good  pasture.  During 
the  summer  and  early  fall,  pasture  forms,  as  a  rule,  the  sole  feed 
for  cattle  and  other  farm  stock,  and  when  there  is  an  abundance  of 
green  feed  the  cheapest  gains  and  most  economical  production  are 
made  at  this  time.  On  account  of  ;the  watery  growth  during  early 
spring,  stock  should  not  be  turned  out  too  early,  both  for  the  good 
of  the  pasture  and  the -stock.  A  feed  of  dry  roughage,  if  available, 
or  of  good  silage  at  this  time,  as  well  as  late  in  the  season,  will  pro- 
duce better  results  than  pasturage  alone. 

Feeding-grain  to  cows  on  good  pasture  has  not  shown  immediate 
direct  results,  so  far  as  dairy  production  is  concerned,  according  to 
investigations  conducted  at  a  number  of  experiment  stations,4  but 
cows  are  brought  to  a  better  body  condition  by  receiving  grain  while 
on  pasture.  They  are  also  likely  to  maintain  their  flow  of  milk 
longer  during  the  balance  of  the  lactation  and  to  do  better  the  fol- 
lowing lactation  period  than  if  no  grain  is  fed  (p.  243').  On  scant 
or  dried-up  pastures  it  is  necessary  to  supply  additional  feed,  either 
green  soiling  crops,  hay,  or  grain  feed,  in  order  that  the  flow  of  milk 
may  be  maintained.  This  is  so  much  the  more  important  as  a  short- 
age of  pasture  feed  is  likely  to  come  at  a  time  when  extreme  hot 
weather  and  flies  tend  to  make  cows  uncomfortable  and  largely  re- 
duce their  milk  production. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Name   six   different   agricultural    sections   of   the   United    States,   with 

characteristic  pasture  grasses  and  hay  crops  grown  in  each. 

2.  Why   are    only    low   yields   obtained    from    many    permanent   pastures? 

Outline  a  correct  system  of  pasture  management. 

3.  How   much    moisture,    digestible    protein,    carbohydrates,    and    fat    are 

generally  present  in   pasture  grasses? 

4.  Give  the  characteristic  differences  between  hay  from  grasses  and  legumes. 

4  Cornell  (N.  Y.)  Bulletins  13,  22,  36,  and  49;  North  Dakota  Bulletin 
16;  Kansas  Report,  1888;  West  Virginia  Bulletin  109. 


GREEN  FORAGE  AND  HAY  CROPS         95 

II.    SOILING  CROPS5 

The  soiling  system  consists  in  furnishing  farm  animals  a  suc- 
cession of  green  feed  in  the  stable  or  enclosures  during  the  entire 
summer  period.  This  system  has  long  been  practised  by  European 
dairy  farmers ;  it  became  known  in  this  country  mainly  through  the 
essays  on  "  Soiling  of  Cattle,"  by  Josiah  Quincy  of  Massachusetts, 
written  nearly  one  hundred  years  ago. 

The  main  advantages  of  the  system  as  compared  with  pasturage 
may  be  briefly  stated  as  follows : 

1.  Less  land  is  required  to  produce  the  feed  necessary  for  a  cer- 
tain number  of  animals  than  with  pasture. 


FIG.  12. — Indian  corn  grown  for  the  silo  or  for  soiling.     ("Productive  Farming,"  Davis.) 

2.  There  is  no  waste  through  tramping,  lying  down  on  the  grass, 
or  fouling  with  manure ;  the  feed  is  cut  at  the  proper  time,  and  is 
always  fresh  and  palatable  (Fig.  12). 

3.  Less  fencing  is  required,  as  cows  need  only  a  small  enclosure 
for  exercise  under  the  soiling  system. 

4.  The  cattle  are  often  more  comfortable  and  in  better  condition 
when  fed  green  feed  in  the  stable  than  when  left  to  find  their  own 
feed  in  the  pasture,  with  the  uncertainties  as  to  condition  of  pasture, 
weather,  etc. 

5.  The  production  of  a  large  and  even  flow  of  milk  is  therefore 
favored,  or  a  uniform  increase  in  live  weight  in  the  case  of  fattening 
stock. 

6.  All  the  manure  is  saved  and  the  fertility  of  the  farm  is  there- 
fore better  maintained  than  under  pasturage.     Quincy  gives  as  his 
experience  that  this  saving  alone  is  "  a  full  equivalent  for  all  the 

6  Adapted  from  an  article  on  this  subject  by  the  author  in  Cyclopedia 
American  Agriculture,  vol.  ii,  pp.  569-574. 


96 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 


labor  and  expense  of  raising,  cutting,  and  bringing  in  the  feed, 
feeding,  currying,  and  other  care  of  the  cattle." 

Disadvantages. — Against  these  advantages,  there  are  the  follow- 
ing disadvantages  of  the  system :  The  increase  in  labor  required  to 
prepare  the  soil ;  to  plant,  harvest,  and  haul  the  various  green  crops, 
and  to  feed  the  herd.  The  last  point  is  of  the  greatest  importance, 
as  the  feed  must  be  cut  regularly  once  or  twice  every  day,  rain  or 
shine,  no  matter  how  pressing  other  farm  work  may  be.  The  sys-' 
tern  also  calls  for  much  skill  and  care  in  planning  for  and  planting 
the  succession  of  green  crops  for  the  season,  and  can  be  successfully 
adopted  only  under  an  intensive  system  of  farming,  on  land  that  is 
kept  in  a  high  state  of  fertility  and  suited  to  the  growing  of  large 
crops  of  green  forage. 

Partial  Soiling. — This  is  a  modified  soiling  system  in  which 
green  forage  crops  are  fed  supplementary  to  pasturage  at  the  time 
when  the  pastures  cannot  be  depended  upon  to  furnish  sufficient  feed 
for  the  stock,  viz.,  during  late  spring  and,  especially,  during  the  late 
summer  and  fall  months.  This  system  is  of  the  highest  value  to 
dairy  farmers  without  silos,  and  will  likely  be  more  generally  adopted 
in  the  future  with  the  development  of  our  dairying  industry. 

Soiling  Crops. — Among  crops  that  have  proved  satisfactory 
soiling  crops  may  be  mentioned :  Indian  corn,  alfalfa,  clover,  vetch, 
sorghum,  peas,  oats,  winter  grains  (cut  before  blooming),  soybeans, 
cowpeas,  rape,  millet,  etc.  In  the  eastern  and  central  States  fodder 
corn  is  probably  the  most  valuable  soiling  crop,  and  alfalfa,  wherever 
it  grows  well.  The  latter  crop  is  all-important  for  soiling  dairy 
cows  in  the  irrigated  regions  in  the  West,  whe~re  it  is  often  the  only 
forage  crop  grown  and  fed.  Peas,  peas  and  oats,  and  rape  also  rank 
high  as  soiling  crops,  the  last  crop  especially  for  sheep  and  hogs. 

The  chemical  composition  of  the  more  important  soiling  crops 
will  be  seen  from  the  following  table : 

.»., .  ^  Composition  of  Important  Soiling  Crops,  in  Per  Cent. 


e    ';  •'.-*;?•  ,1  ^-   :  '  .•••;.•• 

Moisture 

Ash 

Digestible 

N.  R., 
1: 

Protein 

Carbohy- 
drates 
and  fat 

Fodder  corn 

79.3 

71.8 
70.8 
79.4 
62.2 
76.6 
79.7 
84.7 

1.2 
2.7 
2.1 
1.1 
2.5 
1.8 
1.6 
1.3 

1.0 
3.6 
2.9 
.6 

2.5 
2.1 
1.8 
1.8 

12.8 
13.0 
16.5 
12.3 
20.5 
15.0 
11.1 
7.6 

12.8 
3.6 
5.7 
20.5 
8.2 
7.1 
6.2 
4.2 

Alfalfa..       .    . 

Red  clover       .    . 

Sorghum  

Green  oats  

Green  rye  

Peas  and  oats 

Canada  field  peas 

GREEN  FORAGE  AND  HAY  CROPS         97 

Succession  of  Soiling  Crops. — The  succession  of  soiling  crops 
to  be  grown,  and  the  details  in  carrying  out  either  full  or  partial 
soiling,  will  vary  greatly  according  to  climatic  conditions  and  the 
crops  adapted  to  each  locality.  An  extensive  literature  has  freen 
published  by  our  experiment  stations  and  the  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  relating  to  this  system.  The  following 
references  include  the  more  important  experiment  station  publica- 
tions relating  to  soiling  conditions  in  the  various  States : 

Connecticut   (Storrs)    Bulletin  9;  Reports,  1891,  1895. 

Iowa  Bulletins  15,  19,  23,  27;  Circular  12. 

Kansas   Bulletin    J25. 

Maryland  Bulletin  98. 

Massachusetts  Reports,  1887-1891,  1893;  Bulletins  72  and  133. 

Michigan  Bulletin  223. 

Mississippi   Bulletin  95. 

New  Jersey  Bulletin  158 ;  Report,  1902. 

Pennsylvania  Reports,  1889,  1904-1905;  Bulletins  65,  75,  109. 

South  Dakota  Bulletin  81. 

Utah  Report,  1892;  Bulletin  15. 

Vermont  Bulletin  158. 

Wisconsin  Report,  1885;  Bulletins  103,  235. 

Ontario  (Guelph)  Report,  1890. 


.  13. — The  relative  expense  of  producing  and  feeding  soiling  crops  is  considerably  greater 
than  in  the  case  of  silage.     (Wisconsin  Station.) 

Summer  Silage. — It  has  been  shown  that  the  soiling  system 
calls  for  considerable  extra  labor  and  is  attended  with  special  diffi- 
culties during  rainy  and  stormy  weather;  it  may,  moreover,  break 
down  more  or  less  in  seasons  of  extreme  drought.    For  these  and 
7 


98  DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 

other  reasons,  it  has  largely  been  superseded  during  late  years  among 
dairy  farmers  in  eastern  and  central  United  States  by  feeding 
summer  silage.  We  shall  see  that  the  silage  can  be  preserved  per- 
fectly for  feeding  during  the  summer  months,  and  it  has  the  advan- 
tage over  soiling  crops  in  at  least  three  ways :  Convenience  of  feed- 
ing, uniformity,  and  palatability  (p.  153).  The  practice  of  feeding 
summer  silage,  either  of  Indian  corn,  clover,  or  alfalfa,  is,  therefore, 
being  adopted  by  more  and  more  stockmen,  and  the  soiling  system 
is  becoming  less  important  with  every  year.  By  either  system  a 
maximum  and  uniform  production  may  be  secured  during  the  try- 
ing weather  conditions  of  late  summer  or  early  fall,  and  either 
system  is  a  great  step  in  advance  of  the  practice  still  followed  by 
many  farmers  of  leaving  stock  to  subsist  on  largely  burnt-up 
pastures6  (Fig.  13). 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  the  soiling  system?     Give  its  main  advantages  and  its  disad- 

vantages. 

2.  What  is  (a)  partial  soiling?   (fe)   summer  silage? 

3.  Name  some  of  the  more  important  soiling  crops  and  their  characteristics. 

III.   HAY  CROPS 

Hay  Crops. — In  northern  countries,  where  snow  covers  the 
ground  during  a  part  of  the  year,  it  is  necessary  to  provide  winter 
feed  for  the  stock  from  forage  crops  harvested  during  the  summer 
and  fall.  The  main  hay  crops  are  grasses  and  clover,  which  are  cut 
at  the  appropriate  time  (p.  58)  and  air-dried  (cured),  after  which 
they  are  stored  in  hay  barns  or  shed,  to  be  fed  as  required  during  the 
winter  and  spring,  until  next  year's  forage  crops  become  available. 

Hay  raising  forms  an  important  agricultural  industry  in  our 
country,  the  hay  crop  ranking  next  to  Indian  corn  in  value.  Over 
72,000,000  acres  were  sown  to  hay  and  forage  crops  in  1909,  the 
most  important  kinds  being  timothy  and  clover  mixed,  "  wild,  salt, 
and  prairie  hay/'  and  timothy  alone.  Each  of  these  makes  up  about 
25  per  cent  of  the  total  acreage  of  hay  and  forage  crops.  Hay  crops 
of  relatively  minor  importance,  when  the  whole  country  is  con- 
sidered, but  important  in  their  respective  regions,  are  alfalfa  (7 
per  cent  of  the  total  acreage),  grains  cut  green,  coarse  forage,  clover 
alone,  millet,  and  Hungarian  grasses,  "  other  tame  or  cultivated 
grasses,"  and  root  forage  making  up  the  balance  of  the  acreage. 
More  than  one-half  of  the  entire  acreage  in  hay  and  forage  crops 

6  Wisconsin  Bulletin  235. 


GREEN  FORAGE  AND  HAY  CROPS 


99 


is  grown  west  of  the  Mississippi,  but  the  individual  crops  are  quite 
differently  distributed.  The  timothy  and  clover  mixed,  or  clover 
and  timothy  alone,  are  grown  largely  east  of  the  Mississippi  and 
in  the  North,  while  prairie  hay,  grain  hay,  and  root  forage  are 
grown  more  extensively  in  the  West  than  elsewhere. 

Yields  of  Hay. — The  average  yield  of  hay  per  acre  in  1909  for 
the  entire  country  was  1.35  tons,  the  maximum  average  yields  being 
credited  to  the  Pacific  and  mountainous  divisions,  with  1.73  tons, 
and  the  lowest  average  yield  to  the  South  Atlantic  division,  with 
1.20  tons  per  acre.  These  are  average  figures  only  and  do  not  show 
the  yields  secured  by  good  methods  of  farming  or  on  irrigated  land. 
The  yield  of  hay  obtained  is  dependent  on  various  factors,  as  the 
character  and  condition  of  the  soil,  the  method  of  management  as 
to  fertilization,  seeding,  time  of  cutting,  etc.  A  good  hay  field 
will  yield  from  two  to  three  tons  of  timothy  and  clover  hay  to  the 
acre.  There  are,  however,  authenticated  reports  of  yields  of  over 
7  tons  of  well-dried  timothy  and  red  top  hay,  obtained  in  two  cut- 
tings on  a  Connecticut  farm,  and  an  alfalfa  field  yielded  at  the  rate 
of  6  tons  to  the  acre.7  These  yields  were  obtained  by  intensive 
culture  and  heavy  fertilization  and  seeding;  they  show  what  can 
be  done  under  optimum  conditions  in  humid  regions.  In  the 
semi-arid  regions  under  irrigation  still  heavier  yields  are  secured 
regularly  year  after  year,  e.g.,  in  central  and  southern  California, 
on  irrigated  land,  alfalfa  will  yield  7  or  8  cuttings,  averaging  a  ton 
or  more  to  the  acre  per  cutting. 

Chemical  Composition. — The  chemical  composition  and  con- 
tents of  digestible  components  of  hay  crops  will  be  seen  from  the 
table: 

Composition  and  Digestibility  of  Hay  Crops,  in  Per  Cent 


Moisture 

Fiber 

Ash 

Digestible 

N.R., 
1: 

Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 
and  fat 

Mixed  grasses  

15.3 
13.2 
9.9 
8.9 
21.2 
7.1 
10.2 
10.4 

27.2 
29.0 
32.4 

28.6 
23.0 
25.0 
28.5 
30.0 

5.5 
4.4 
6.0 
5.2 
6.3 
3.5 
6.1 
7.7 

4.2 
2.8 
4.9 
4.8 
4.4 
6.4 
2.9 
3.1 

44.9 
45.3 
45.6 
49.1 
41.0 
48.5 
47.4 
41.7 

10.7 
16.2 
9.3 
10.2 
9.5 
7.6 
16.3 
13.5 

Timothy  

Orchard  grass  

Red  top  

Kentucky  blue  grass  .  .  . 
Bermuda  grass 

Johnson  grass 

Marsh  grass  

7  Cyclopedia  American  Agriculture,  vol.  ii,  p.  436. 


100 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 


Timothy  (Pldeum  pratense)  is  the  common  hay  crop  of  north- 
eastern United  States,  being  grown  either  mixed  with  red  clover  or 
in  pure  seeding.  The  mixed  timothy  and  clover  makes  the  more 
valuable  hay  of  the  two,  because  of  the  larger  protein  content  and 
the  lower  fiber  content  of  this  hay.  Timothy  is  a  favorite  hay 
with  farmers  and,  especially,  horse  owners;  the  main  reasons  for 
this  preference  are:  Clean,  good  timothy  seed  is  generally  available 
at  a  low  price;  timothy  is  quickly  established,  and  usually  holds 
well ;  it  may  be  readily  cured  into  clean,  bright  hay,  which  is  rather 
free  from  dust  and  may  be  handled  without  much  waste. 

Timothy  is  especially  adapted  for 'feeding  horses,  while  it  has 
a  relatively  low  value  for  growing  animals  or  dairy  cattle.  For 
these  animals  it  is  greatly  improved  by  a  liberal  admixture  of  clover. 
The  yields  of  timothy  hay  obtained  depend  on  the  character  of  the 
soil,  the  climatic  conditions,  thickness  of  planting,  and  also,  to  a 
large  extent,  on  th6  time  of  cutting.  The  following  table  prepared 
by  Hunt8  shows  the  yield  per  acre  of  the  dry  matter  of  timothy 
cut  at  different  stages  as  indicated,  according  to  trials  at  three 
experiment  stations : 

Influence  of  Maturity  of  Timothy  on  Yield  of  Dry  Matter,  Pounds  per  Acre 


Stage  of  maturity 

Connecticut 

Illinois 

Pennsyl- 
vania 

Average 

Well  headed  out  
Full  bloom  

2750 
3300 

3285 

2585 

3057 

Out  of  bloom 

3115 

3425 

(3270) 

Seed  in  dough 

4010 

Seed  nearly  ripe 

3615 

4065 

3065 

3582 

The  largest  yield  of  dry  matter  was  obtained  in  all  three  cases 
when  the  timothy  was  cut  at  a  late  period  of  growth,  when  the  seed 
was  nearly  ripe.  The  quality  of  the  late-cut  hay  is  poorer  than  that 
cut  earlier,  as  we  have  seen,  both  as  regards  chemical  composition 
and  digestibility.  Hence  it  is  generally  recommended  to  cut  timothy 
when  in  full  bloom  or  just  out  of  bloom.  Late  cutting  does  not 
greatly  decrease  the  palatability  of  the  hay  to  horses,  but  renders 
it  practically  worthless  when  used  as  sole  roughage  for  young  stock, 
dairy  cows,  and  sheep. 

Red  or  alsike  clover,  according  to  Henry,  should  always  be  sown 
with  timothy,  for  the  combination  furnishes  more  and  a  superior 
quality  of  hay  than  timothy  alone,  even  for  horses.  "  Grown  to- 
gether, the  hay  of  the  first  season  will  consist  largely  of  clover. 

8 "  Forage  and  Fiber  Crops  of  America,"  p.  59. 


GREEN  FORAGE  AND  HAY:CMPa  101 

With  the  close  of  the  second  season,  most  of  the  clover  disappears 
and  the  decaying  clover  roots  will  nourish  the  timothy  which  re- 
mains, so  that  a  much  larger  yield  of  that  grass  is  thereby  obtained.9 

Kentucky  blue  grass,  often  called  June  grass  (Poa  pratensis), 
is  a  common  grass  in  the  meadows  and  pastures  in  northeastern 
United  States  and  also  in  other  parts  of  the  country.  It  makes  a 
compact  sod  when  once  established,  is  greatly  relished  by  all  kinds 
of  stock,  and  has  high  nutritious  properties. 

"  Blue  grass  ripens  in  early  summer,  having  largely  gathered  the 
necessary  food  materials  from  air  and  soil  during  the  preceding  late 
summer  and  fall.  With  the  coming  of  spring  it  pushes  forward  so 
vigorously  that  early  in  May  the  fields  wear  a  thick,  nutritious  car- 
pet of  grass,  and  a  little  later  the  seed  heads  show.  With  seed- 
bearing  late  in  May,  the  plant's  energies  have  been  exhausted,  and 
blue  grass  enters  a  period  of  rest  which  lasts  several  weeks.  During 
this;  time  there  is  little  growth,  and  if  a  midsummer  drought 
occurs  the  plants  turn  brown  and  appear  to  be  dying.  They 
quickly  revive  with  the  coming  of  the  fall  rains,  and  again  the 
pastures  are  green  and  growing.  They  have  had  their  rest,  and 
each  plant  is  once  more  busy  gathering  nourishment  for  the  coming 
season's  seed-bearing.  The  observant  stockman  soon  learns  that 
it  is  not  wise  to  rely  on  blue-grass  pasture  for  a  steady  and  uniform 
feed  supply  for  his  cattle  throughout  the  whole  season.  Accordingly 
he  understocks  the  pasture  in  spring,  so  that  the  excess  of  herbage 
during  May  and  June  remains  to  be  drawn  upon  during  the  mid- 
summer dormant  period,  or  he  fully  stocks  it  and  makes  up  the 
later  shortage  by  partial  soilage.  In  some  districts  it  has  been 
found  profitable  to  graze  blue-grass  pastures  lightly,  or  not  at  all 
in  summer,  and  allow  the  self-cured  herbage  to  stand  for  winter 
grazing.  Kentucky  blue  grass  is  primarily  a  pasture  grass  ancl 
should  be  so  regarded."10 

Red  top  (Agrostis  alba}  is  especially  valuable  for  moist  lands 
sown  in  mixtures  with  other  grasses.  It  is  slow  in  starting  growth 
in  spring  and  does  not  reach  full  development  when  other  grasses 
in  the  mixture  are  ready  to  be  cut,  but  it  produces  leaves  and  stems 
late  in  the  fall  and  makes  a  good  second  growth  for  pasture.  It 
produces  an  abundance  of  pasturage  on  suitable  soils,  and  makes 
a  fairly  palatable  hay  of  fine  stems  and  numerous  leaves,  although 
it  is  not  considered  equal  to  timothy  hay  in  quality, .  and  when 
present  in  timothy  reduces  the  market  value  of  this  hay. 

Orchard  grass  (Dactylis  glomerata)  is  mostly  grown  along  the 

9  "  Feeds  and  Feeding,"  p.  167. 

10  Henry,  loc.  cit.,  p.  166. 


102  DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 

southern  border  of  the  timothy  region,  in  Virginia,  North  Carolina, 
Tennessee,  and  Kentucky  (p.  90),  although  it  is  recommended  for 
many  northern  States  and  for  a  variety  of  soils.  It  succeeds  well 
in  shady  places  and  orchards,  but  grows  in  bunches  and  forms  a 
very  rough  sod.  It  is  generally  grown  in  mixtures  with  Kentucky 
blue  grass  and  white  clover.  Orchard  grass  is  one  of  the  earliest 
grasses  to  start  in  the  spring  and  is  ready  to  cut  before  timothy. 
If  cut  when  in  bloom  or  earlier,  it  makes  a  hay  of  very  good  quality. 
If  cut  after  bloom,  the  hay  is  coarse  and  unpalatable  to  stock. 

Like  red  top,  orchard  grass  hay  is  high  in  digestible  nutrients, 
being  higher  both  in  digestible  protein  and  carbohydrates  than 
timothy.11 

Smooth  brome  grass  (Bromus  enermis)  is  a  most  important 
perennial  pasture  and  hay  plant  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  northern 
plains  region.  It  occupies  a  similar  place  in  this  region  as  timothy 
and  Kentucky  blue  grass  do  in  northeastern  United  States.  This 
grass  makes  a  good  hay  crop  for  a  number  of  years,  and  is  relished 
by  cattle,  sheep,  and  horses.  It  is  especially  valuable  as  a  pasture 
grass  for  Kansas,  Nebraska,  and  the  Dakotas,  but  it  is  not  adapted  to 
the  warm  climate  of  the  southern  States,  or,  apparently,  to  condi- 
tions in  the  northeastern  part  of  the  country. 

Bermuda  grass  is  the  foundation  of  all  the  best  permanent 
pastures  in  the  South,  and  in  many  localities  is  important  for  hay. 
As  the  seed  is  expensive  and  somewhat  uncertain  in  germination, 
this  grass  is  usually  propagated  by  planting  small  pieces  of  sod. 
The  yield  of  hay  on  rich  bottom  land  may  be  as  much  as  four  tons 
per  acre,  less  on  poor  soil,  and  on  dry  clay  hills  not  worth  harvest- 
ing. Its  feeding  value  is  about  equal  to  that  of  timothy.12 

Johnson  grass  gives  a  heavy  yield  of  excellent  hay  in  the  South 
and  furnishes  good  grazing  for  one  or  two  seasons,  but  is  such  a 
pest  when  grown  in  fields  where  it  is  not  wanted  that  its  planting 
in  clean  fields  cannot  be  recommended.  It  spreads  both  from  seeds 
and  by  its  vigorous  creeping  root-stocks.13  Johnson  grass  is  also 
undesirable  from  the  feeder's  standpoint,  in  so  far  as  it  may  contain 
prussic  acid  (hydrocyanic  acid),  if  the  growth  has  become  rank,  and 
fatal  results  have  followed  when  cattle  have  eaten  of  it.  It  is, 
therefore,  a  plant  that  cannot  be  recommended,  in  spite  of  the 
fact  that  it  yields  heavily  and  furnishes  a  good  quality  of  soiling 
crop  and  hay,  under  favorable  conditions.14 

11 U.  S.  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  Bulletin  100,  vi. 

12  Farmers'  Bulletin  509. 

"Farmers'  Bulletins  279  and  509. 

"Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  Bulletin  72,  iii;  Bulletin  90,  iv. 


GREEN  FORAGE  AND  HAY  CROPS         103 

Marsh  Hay. — Along  the  coast  of  the  New  England  States  there 
are  extensive  acres  of  salt  marshes  that  furnish  considerable  quanti- 
ties of  hay  for  stock  feeding.  The  marshes  are  cut  at  low  tide, 
generally  at  a  time  when  the  grasses  are  in  bloom.  The  yield  of 
cured  hay  secured  varies  from  one-half  to  one  ton  to  the  acre.  The 
hay  from  these  tide  marshes  contains  about  6  per  cent  protein,  2 
per  cent  fat,  and  30  per  cent  fiber;  its  digestibility  does  not  differ 
greatly  from  that  of  common  hay.  Throughout  the  country  there 
are  also  large  stretches  of  marshes  that  are  cut  for  hay,  especially 
in  dry  seasons.  The  composition  and  general  value  of  such  marsh 
hay  are  similar  to  those  of  salt  marsh  hay ;  the  better  kinds  of  these 
grasses  make  a  fair  quality  of  rough  feed,  of  a  similar  value  as 
cornstalks. 

Market  Hay. — The  growing  of  hay  for  the  market  is  an  im- 
portant industry,  especially  in  the  northeast  and  western  States.  It 
is  estimated  that  about  one-fifth  of  the  1908  hay  crop  in  this 
country,  or  over  15,000,000  tons,  was  removed  from  the  farms  and 
sold  on  the  local  market  or  shipped  to  city  hay  markets.  Hay 
markets  supervised  by  an  organization  of  hay  dealers  are  established 
in  a  number  of  our. larger  cities  which  provide  for  official  inspection 
of  the  hay  sold,  and  for  standard  quotations  and  methods  of  weigh- 
ing.15 These  markets  recognize  five  grades  of  hay,  viz.,  the  stand- 
ard grades:  Choice,  No.  1,  No.  2,  and  No.  3,  and  "No-grade" 
hay.  The  following  kinds  of  hay  are  quoted  and  sold  on  these 
markets:  Timothy,  clover-mixed,  prairie,  midland,  packing  hay, 
and  alfalfa.16 

The  percentages  of  different  grades  of  timothy  on  the  market 
are  about  as  follows,  according  to  McClure :  Choice,  10  per  cent, 
and  No.  1,  20  to  30  per  cent,  leaving  60  to  70  per  cent  of  all  market 
hay  to  grade  as  No.  2,  No.  3,  or  "  No-grade."  When  shipped  to  the 
market  the  hay  is  put  up  in  bales  of  different  dimensions.  The 
statement  given  below  shows  the  sizes  of  standard  hay  bales  in 
common  use. 

Standard  Sizes  of  Hay  Bales 

Dimensions 

Small  bate {tSxllx!} 

Middle-sized  bales (l8  X22  xle}  100-150 

Large-sized  bales 22  X  28  X  46  150-250 

"Farmers'  Bulletin  508;  Vermont  Bulletin  171. 

18  The  requirements  for  market  hay  of  the  different  grades  are  given  in 
Farmers'  Bulletin  508 ;  see  also  Woll,  Handbook,  p.  406  a  and  6. 


104  DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 

The  best  quality  of  hay  is  obtained  when  the  meadows  are  kept 
in  grass  only  for  a  period  of  three  or  four  years  at  the  outside.  A 
common  fault  of  growers  of  market  hay  is  to  leave  the  meadows  too 
long  in  grass  after  weeds  and  foreign  grasses  have  entered  to  lower 
the  quality.  The  hay  crop  should  be  a  part  of  a  regular  crop  rota- 
tion, which  should  include  some  leguminous  crop,  and  a  regular 
system  of  fertilization,  so  that  the  fertility  of  the  soil  may  be  main- 
tained and  a  choice  marketable  hay  produced.  Hay  is  often  cut 
at  a  too  late  stage  of  growth,  after  full  bloom  has  passed.  Late 
cutting,  faulty  methods  of  curing,  the  presence  of  other  grasses  and 
weeds,  injuries  from  the  weather  in  curing  and  before  baling,  im- 
proper baling  and  loading  into  cars  cause  much  hay  to  grade  low 
and  are  sources  of  great  losses  to  hay  growers.  Choice  hay  always 
finds  a  ready  sale,  for  the  demand  usually  exceeds  the  supply.  The 
better  grades  of  hay,  while  more  expensive,  require  a  smaller  addi- 
tion of  concentrates  to  rations  for  farm  animals  than  the  lower 
grades,  and  are,  therefore,  generally  speaking,  the  best  kinds  to  buy. 

Rule  for  Measuring  Hay  in  the  Stack. — Both  when  hay  is 
sold  in  the  stack  and  in  planning  for  feeding  stacked  hay  to  stock, 
it  is  important  to  know  how  to  measure  hay  put  up  in  this  way. 
The  Government  rule  used  in  purchasing  hay  for  army  posts  has 
given  satisfactory  results  and  has  been  generally  adopted.  It  is 
as  follows : 

Multiply  the  width  of  the  stack  in  feet  by  the  "  over  "  (i.e.,  the  distance 
of  the  stack  from  the  base  on  one  side  to  the  base  on  the  other ) ,  divide  the 
product  by  4,  and  multiply  the  quotient  by  the  length.  This  gives  the  con- 
tents of  the  stack  in  cubic  feet;  for  hay  that  has  stood  less  than  30  days, 
divide  by  512;  for  30  to  60  days,  by  422;  over  60  days,  by  380.  The  quotient 
gives  the  tonnage  of  the  stack. 

Example:  A  stack  is  20  feet  wide  by  40  feet  "over"  and  60  feet 
long.  20  multiplied  by  40  equals  800.  800  divided  by  4  equals  200.  200 
multiplied  by  60  equals  12,000.  12,000  divided  by  512  equals  23y2  tons.10 

QUESTIONS 

1.  State  the  difference  between  early-  and  late-cut  timothy  hay,  and  the 

relative  value  of  the  two  kinds  of  hay. 

2.  Give  the  characteristic  features  of  six  of  the  common  grasses,  and  their 

relative  value  for  stock  feeding. 

3.  Name  the  different  grades  of  market  hay. 

4.  State  some  common  defects  of  market  hay,  and  suggest  improvements  in 

the  present  method  of  growing  hay  for  market. 

5.  Give  the  Government  rule  for  measuring  hay  in  the  stack. 

10  Barnes,  "  Western  Grazing  Grounds,"  p.  139.  See  also  Bureau  of  Plant 
Industry  Circular  131;  Woll,  Handbook,  p.  397. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
GREEN  FORAGE  AND  HAY  CROPS  (Continued) 

I.   ANNUAL  FORAGE  CROPS 

Indian  Corn  (Zea  mays). — The  proportion  of  corn  grown  espe- 
cially for  forage  in  the  United  States  and  fed  either  green,  cured, 
or  as  silage  is  relatively  small,  although  increasing  with  every  year. 
A  fuller  discussion  of  this  crop  will,  therefore/  be  given  under 
"Cereals." 

When  grown  for  forage,  Indian  corn  is  planted  thicker  than 
when  grown  for  the  sake  of  the  grain.  The  difference  in  the  amount 
of  grain  and  fodder  secured  by  different  methods  of  planting  is 
shown  by  experiments  conducted  at  the  Illinois  station.1  In 
these  trials  dent  corn  was  planted  on  a  rich  prairie  soil,  in  rows 
three  feet  eight  inches  apart,  with  kernels  from  three  to  twenty- 
four  inches  apart  in  the  row.  The  following  table  shows  the  main 
results  obtained: 

Results  of  Planting  Corn  Kernels  Different  Distances  Apart  in  Rows 


Distance 
between 

Yield  per  acre 

Digestible  substance  per  acre 

Stover 

Stover 
for  each 

kernels  in 
row 

Good 
ears 

Poor 
ears 

Stover 

Grain 

Total 

per, 
acre 

pound 
of  corn 

bu. 

bu. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

tons 

Ibs. 

3  inches 

13 

46 

3968 

2250 

6218 

4.8 

3.6 

6  inches 

37 

39 

3058 

2922 

5980 

3.7 

.9 

9  inches 

55 

22 

2562 

2977 

5539 

3.1 

.5 

12  inches 

73 

16 

2480 

3113 

5593 

3.0 

.3 

15  inches 

63 

11 

2398 

2782 

5180 

2.9 

.4 

24  inches 

49 

6 

2066 

2141 

4207 

2.5 

.5 

We  note  that  the  highest  yield  of  good  ears,  seventy-three  bushels 
per  acre,  was  obtained  when  the  grain  was  planted  twelve  inches 
apart  in  the  row,  and  that  this  method  of  planting  gave  the  smallest 
proportion  of  stover  (cornstalks)  to  ear  corn.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  largest  yields  of  stover  and  of  digestible  substances  per  acre 
were  secured  when  the  kernels  were  planted  three  inches  apart  in 
the  row,  and  the  yield  of  nubbins  per  acre  was  also  largest  in  the 


Bulletin  13. 


105 


106  DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 

case  of  this  planting.  The  same  results  would  not  necessarily  be 
obtained  on  other  kinds  of  soils  or  under  different  climatic  condi- 
tions, but  the  effect  of  thick  planting  on  the  growth  of  corn  plants 
would  be  similar  in  all  cases.  The  plant  is  not  able  to  reach  its 
full  development  by  thick  planting,  and  the  yields  of  perfect  ears 
obtained  by  this  method  are  relatively  small;  the  total  yields  of 
feed  materials  secured  from  a  certain  area  are,  however,  likely  to  be 
larger,  the  thicker  the  corn  is  planted,  up  to  the  limit  investigated 
in  the  trials  given.  Evidently,  therefore,  where  the  corn  is  grown 
for  green  feed,  for  silage,  or  to  be  cured  as  fodder,  the  best  method 
is  to  plant  thick,  so  that  but  few  perfect  ears  are  formed;  con- 
versely, if  corn  is  grown  for  the  sake  of  the  grain,  the  general 
method  of  thin  planting,  say  in  hills  3%  by  3%  feet,  will  give  the 
best  results,  and  a  relatively  smaller  proportion  of  cornstalks  will 
then  be  secured. 

Yields  of  Corn. — Green  fodder  will  yield  from  about  8  to  20 
tons  per  acre,  containing  l1/^  to  4  tons  of  dry  matter;  an  average 
yield  on  good  land  would  be  about  15  tons  of  green  forage,  con- 
taining about  3!/2  tons  of  dry  matter.  This  is  a  considerably  larger 
yield  of  feed  materials  than  can  be  obtained  in  case  of  most  other 
soiling  crops  without  irrigation. 

Corn  makes  an  excellent  soiling  crop  in  regions  adapted  to  its 
culture,  and  furnishes  a  large  quantity  of  feed  that  is  greatly  relished 
by  cattle  and  other  farm  animals.  If  cut  early,  say  before  tasselling, 
it  will  contain  only  about  10  per  cent  of  dry  matter,  while  at  later 
stages  of  development  toward  maturity  it  will  contain  25  to  30 
per  cent  of  dry  matter.  It  is  largely  a  carbonaceous  feed  and  is  low 
in  protein  (average  digestible  protein,  1.1  per  cent;  carbohydrates 
and  fat,  16.1  per  cent;  nutritive  ratio,  1:  15.1).  If  fed  to  dairy 
cows  or  young  stock  which  require  considerable  protein,  it  should 
be  supplemented  with  a  mixture  of  suitable  protein  feeds,  like  wheat 
bran,  gluten  feed,  oil  meal,  dried  brewers'  or  distillers'  grains,  etc. 

Proportions  of  Nutrients  in  the  Corn  Plant. — Even  when 
corn  is  grown  for  the  sake  of  the  grain,  a  considerable  proportion 
of  feed  materials  remains  in  the  stalks  and  becomes  available  for 
feeding  farm  animals.  The  proportion  of  ears  to  stover  has  been 
determined  by  a  number  of  experiment  stations.  The  average  results 
obtained  at  four  different  stations  (New  Jersey,  Connecticut,  Penn- 
sylvania, and  Wisconsin),  are  as  follows:2 

2  Pennsylvania  Report,  1887. 


GREEN  FORAGE  AND  HAY  CROPS 

Average  Yields  of  Ear  Corn  and  Stover,  Per  Acre 


107 


Ears, 
pounds 

Stover, 
pounds 

Average  yields.  . 
Ratio 

4415 
100 

3838 
87 

About  87  pounds  of  cured  stover  were  obtained,  on  the  average, 
for  every  hundred  pounds  of  ear  corn,  when  the  corn  was  grown  for 
the  sake  of  the  grain ;  or,  to  put  it  in  another  way,  nearly  one-half 
of  the  weight  of  the  corn  crop  (46  per  cent)  is  found  in  the  stalks. 
Since  57  per  cent  of  the  dry  matter  of  cornstalks  has  been  found 
digestible,  and  88  per  cent  in  the  case  of  ear  corn,  the  total  amounts 
of  digestible  dry  matter  furnished  in  the  stalks  are  considerable, 
amounting  to  over  one-third  of  the  entire  plant  under  ordinary 
method  of  corn  culture. 

These  figures  plainly  suggest  the  importance  of  taking  advantage 
of  the  large  amounts  of  feed  materials  found  in  the  cornstalks  and 
Utilizing  these  for  stock  feeding  so  far  as  possible.  The  relation 
between  different  groups  of  feed  materials  in  the  ears  and  stalks, 
as  given  by  Armsby,  is  shown  below : 

Digestible  Feed  Materials  in  the  Mature  Corn  Plant,  in  Per  Cent 


Total 

Crude 
protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fat 

digesti- 
ble 

matter 

Ears  

75 

61 

85 

63 

Cornstalks  .... 

25 

39 

15 

37 

Since  one-fourth  of  the  entire  digestible  protein  and  37  per 
cent  of  the  entire  digestible  nutrients  of  the  corn  are  found  in  the 
stalks,  their  utilization  for  feeding  purposes  becomes  a  matter  of 
great  economic  importance.  It  should  be  stated  that  the  figures 
in  the  table  make  a  too  favorable  showing  for  cornstalks,  for  the 
reason  that  more  energy  is  consumed  in  the  digestion  of  equal 
weights  of  stalks  than  ear  corn,  and  less,  therefore,  remains  for 
nutritive  purposes.  Making  due  allowance  for  this  difference,  it 
is  nevertheless  evident  that  a  great  waste  of  national  resources  has 
been  allowed  to  take  place  in  past  years,  and  is  still  going  on,  by 
leaving  cornstalks  to  decay  in  the  fields ;  thousands  upon  thousands 
of  acres  of  cornstalks  are  left  largely  unutilized  every  year,  in  the 


108  DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 

corn  belt  and  outside  of  it.  These  would  furnish  good  feed  for  farm 
animals,  especially  young  stock,  cattle,  and  horses  doing  light  work, 
and  would  produce  considerable  revenue  to  the  farmer  by  proper 
handling  and  feeding  with  other  materials. 

Method  of  Harvesting. — The  method  of  handling  the  corn 
crop  generally  practised  in  the  main  corn-growing  sections  is  to 
harvest  the  grain  in  the  field  without  cutting  the  stalks,  and  to 
turn  cattle  into  the  field  during  late  fall  and  early  winter  to  eat  off 
the  leaves  and  tender  parts  of  the  stalks,  the  rest  being  wasted.  On 
the,  better-managed  stock  farms,  especially  in  dairy  regions,  corn 
is  cut  by  machinery  and  placed  in  shocks  in  the.  field,  and  the.  ear 
corn  is  harvested  late  in  the  fall,  the  shocks  of  stalks  remaining 
in  the  field  until  needed  for  feeding  to  stock.  Owing  to  the  bulky 
nature  of  the  stalks  and  the  slowness  with  which,  they  are  cured, 
they  cannot  be  stored  under  roof  in  large  quantities.  The  corn  is, 
however,  now  often  husked  and  run  through  a  shredder  in  the 
same  operation  in  the  late  fall,  and  the  shredded  com  fodder  is 
stacked  for  feeding  during  the  winter.  This  makes  a  valuable  feed 
for  farm  animals  and  forms  a  good  partial  substitute  for  more  or 
Jess  expensive  hay. 

Field-curing  of  Indian  Corn. — Considerable  losses  of  nutrients 
occur  in  the  corn  fodder  when  this  is  left  in  shocks  in  the  field 
exposed  to  the  severe  weather  of  late  fall  and  winter.  These  losses 
have  been  studied  at  a  number  of  experiment  stations,  among  others 
at  the  Wisconsin  station  by  Professor  Henry  and  the  author.  The 
results  which  were  obtained  in  studies  of  the  relative  economy  of 
field-curing  and  siloing  Indian  corn  (referred  to  later  on  p.  157) 
stated  briefly  show  that,  as  an  average  of  four  years'  experimental 
work,  a  loss  of  24  per  cent  of  the  dry  matter  and  of  crude  protein 
was  found  in  the  case  of  shocks  of  corn  left  in  the  field  for  an 
average  period  of  about  two  months.  The  results  obtained  else- 
where have  shown  that  the  figures  given  are  rather  low  for  ordinary 
farm  conditions.  Exposure  to  rain  and  storms,  abrasion  of  dry 
leaves  and  thin  stalks,  and  other  factors,  tend  to  diminish  the 
nutritive  value  of  the  fodder,  aside  from  the  losses  from  fermenta- 
tions, so  that  very  often  only  one-half  of  the  feed  materials  originally 
present  in  the  fodder  is  left  by  the  time  this  is  fed  out.  Further- 
more,, the  remaining  portion  of  the  fodder  has  a  lower  digestibility 
and  a  lower  feeding  value  than  the  fodder  corn  had  when  shocked, 
for  the  reason  that  the  fermentations  occurring  during  the  curing 
process  attack  the  most  valuable  and  easily  digestible  components 


GREEN  FORAGE  AND  HAY  CROPS 

of  the  nitrogen-free  extract,  viz.,  the  sugar  and  starch,  which  are 
soluble,  or  readily  rendered  soluble  in  the  process  of  digestion. 

Grain  hay  is  commonly  made  and  fed  to  farm  animals  in 
western  United  States,  and  occasionally  in  other  regions  of  the 
country  as  well,  when  conditions  render  it  necessary  or  desirable 
to  use  it  for  this  purpose.  Barley,  oats,  wheat,  and  rye  are  used 
for  hay-making  and  for  pasturage  or  soiling.  Oats  make  the  best 
hay,  while  rye  and  barley  are  especially  adapted  for  soiling  or 
pasturage.  The  grain  crops  .are,  in  general,  cut  for  hay  when  the 
kernels  are  in  the  early  milk  stage;  cut  at  this  stage,  they  make  a 
very  nutritious  and  palatable  hay.  Oats  may  be  cut  a  little  later 
than  this  for  hay,  and  barley  preferably  somewhat  earlier,  while 
the  beards  are  still  soft,  so  that  they  will  not  give  trouble  in  feeding 
the  hay.  Wheat  and  barley  hay  are  the  common  grain  hays  used 
on  the  Pacific  coast,  while  oat  hay  is  more  generally  fed  in  the 
southern  States.  'Grain  hay  will  yield  an  average  of  two  to  three 
tons  of  hay  per  acre  on  good  land,  Cut  for  either  soiling  purposes 
or  for  hay,  the  cereal  crops  yield  forage  of  excellent  quality  and 
palatability  and  furnish  large  amounts  of  valuable  feed  components. 
At  the  stage  given,  early  milk,  the  plants  are  relatively  richer  in 
protein  than  during  the  ripening  periodj  and  the  nutritive  ratio 
is,  therefore,  then  considerably  narrower  than  later  Qn;  hence 'more 
starchy,  and,  as  a  rule>  cheaper  concentrates  may  be  fed  with  hay 
cut  at  this  time  than  at  a  later  stage  of  growth.3 

Sorghum  is  a  common  soiling  crop  in  the  southern  and  central 
western  States,  and  is  also  made  into  hay  or  silage.  ,  It  resists 
drought  well,  and  has  the  further  advantage  of  retaining  its  greem 
leaves  late  in  the  season.  When  intended  for  hay,  it  is  generally 
sown  thickly,  using  about  three  bushels  of  seed  to  the  acre,  so  as  to 
prevent  a  coarse  growth.  It  is  cut  for  hay  at  the  late  milk  stage, 
and,  for  soiling,  any  time  after  blossoming  till  approaching  ma- 
turity. When  intended  for  silage,  it  should  be  left  until  mature 
before  it  is  cut  (p.  157).  On  good  soils  sorghum  will  yield  two  to 
four  good  crops  of  hay,  often  aggregating  eight  to  ten  tons  during 
the  season.  Matured  sorghum  may  be  cut  and  left  shocked  in  the 
field  and  fed  in  the  same  way  as  cornstalks,  or  may  be  run  through 
a  shredder.  It  may  be  considered  to  possess  a  feeding  value  nearly 
similar  to  that  of  fodder  corn,  ton  for  ton,  although  it  contains 
considerably  less  protein  and  somewhat  more  fiber  than  green  corn 
(nutritive  ratio  of  Indian  corn,  1 :  12.8;  of  sorghum,  1:  20.5). 

3  In  Kentucky  Bulletin  175  attention  is  called  to  the  fact  that  young 
green  rye,  wheat,  and  oats  contain  more  protein  than  green  legumes. 


110 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 


Serious  trouble,  and  even  death,  has  at  times  resulted  from  cattle 
or  horses  eating  second-growth  sorghum.  This  generally  occurs 
after  periods  of  frost  or  extreme  drought,  when  the  plants  have 
been  stunted  in  their  growth  and  afterwards  begin  to  grow.  It 
is  due  to  the  formation  of  a  glucoside  in  the  new  shoots  which  sets 
free  prussic  acid  through  the  action  of  a  ferment.  Accidents  usually 
have  happened  when  pastures  are  short  and  cattle  get  into  a  field 
of  sorghum,  eating  considerable  of  it  on  empty  stomachs.  They 
should,  therefore,  be  given  some  feed  before  being  let  into  fields  of 


FIG.  14. — A  field  of  dwarf  black-hull  kafir  corn,  a  good  grain-sorghum  for  western  States. 

(Ball.) 

such  sorghum;  since  no  trouble  will  occur  when  second-growth 
sorghum  is  made  into  hay  or  silage,  the  safer  method  is  to  use  it 
for  one  or  the  other  of  these  purposes. 

The  non-saccharine  sorghums,  so-called  grain  sorghums,  kafir 
corn,  milo  maize,  and  durra,  are  largely  grown  for  the  sake  of  the 
grain  in  western  States;  they  are  also  occasionally  used  as  green 
and  dry  forage,  as  well  as  for  silage,  for  cattle,  horses,  and  sheep. 
These  sorghums  are  discussed  more  fully  under  "  Cereal  Grains  " 
(Chapter  XVI).  Second-growth  kafir  corn  and  other  grain  sor- 
ghums sometimes  have  poisonous  properties,  under  similar  condi- 


GREEN  FORAGE  AND  HAY  CROPS         111 

tions,  as  in  the  case  of  second-growth  sweet  sorghum,  and  must  be 
fed  with  great  care  in  the  green  condition  (Fig.  14). 

Sudan  grass  (Andropogon  sorghum  var.)  has  been  recently 
introduced  into  southern  States.  It  is  an  annual,  drought-resistant 
plant,  closely  related  to  the  sorghums.  It  resembles  Johnson  grass 
somewhat  in  appearance,  but,  unlike  this  grass,  it  has  no  root- 
stocks  and  is  not,  therefore,  likely  to  become  a  pest.  Sudan  grass 
makes  a  fair  quality  of  hay,  giving  two  cuttings  in  a  season.  The 
yields  obtained  will  range  from  two  to  eight  tons  per  acre,  according 
to  climatic  and  soil  conditions.  It  is  well  suited  for  use  as  a  soiling 
crop  and  may  also  prove  valuable  for  the  silo.  This  grass  promises 
to  be  of  special  value  to  southern  agriculture  and  in  irrigated  regions 
as  a  forage  to  be  fed  supplementary  to  alfalfa. 

Millets. — The  millets  are  annual  forage  plants.  They  are  rarely 
grown  for  the  sake  of  the  seed  in  this  country,  as  is  the  case  in 
Asia,  "where  millet  seed  is  a  common  grain  crop.  They  include  a 
very  large  number  of  different  species.  Those  grown  in  this  country 
may  be  separated  into  four  groups :  The  foxtail  or  common  millet, 
broom-corn,  barnyard,  and  pearl  millets.  The  most  important  of 
the  millets  for  stock  feeding  are  the  German  millet  and  the  Hun- 
garian grass,  both  of  which  belong  to  the  group  of  foxtail  millets. 
Millets  are  essentially  hot-weather  grasses  and  are  drought- 
resistant,  which  renders  them  especially  valuable  hay  crops  under 
semi-arid  conditions.  They  are  grown  chiefly  in  central  western 
States,  like  Kansas,  Nebraska,  and  Missouri,  for  the  purpose  of 
supplementing  the  hay  crop.  Under  favorable  moisture  conditions 
they  will  yield  from  three  to  five  tons  of  cured  hay  per  acre.  They 
should  be  cut  as  soon  as  the  blossoms  appear;  on  account  of  the 
small,  hard  seeds  and  woody  stems  they  make  an  unsatisfactory 
feed  if  the  cutting  is  delayed  till  a  later  stage  of  growth.  Cut  early 
and  fed  in  moderate  amounts,  the  millets  make  a  valuable  hay  for 
horses,  cattle,  and  sheep.  They  should  not  be  fed  exclusively  or  for 
long  periods  at  a  time  to  horses,  as  they  are  likely  to  cause  digestive 
and  other  troubles  in  that  case.  The  millets  do  not  differ  greatly 
in  chemical  composition  or  feeding  value  from  Indian  corn  fodder 
or  sorghum,  but  are  not  relished  by  stock  to  quite  the  same  extent. 

Foxtail  is  a  common  weed  in  grain  fields  and  meadows  in  many  parts  of 
the  country.  It  is  especially  troublesome  in  alfalfa  fields  in  the  western 
States.  The  first  crop  of  alfalfa  on  old  weedy  fields  is  often  rendered  use- 
less through  the  growth  of  foxtail  therein,  unless  it  be  cut  early,  while  the 
beards  are  still  soft  and  can  be  eaten  without  injury.  If  cut  at  this  time, 


112 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 


foxtail  makes  a  fine  and  very  nutritious  hay  that  compares  favorably  in 
feeding  value  with  a  good  quality  of  oat  hay.  The  following  table  shows  the 
digestible  components  of  these  two  kinds  of  hay: 

Digestible  Components  of  Foxtail  and  Oat  Hays 


Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fat 

N.  R., 
1: 

Foxtail  ,.. 
Oat  hay  

4.3 

45 

41.4 
437 

.9 
1  5 

10.1 

105 

Teosinte  is  an  annual  forage  plant,  closely  related  to  Indian  corn. 
It  is  believed  to  be  the  ancestor  of  our  corn,  and  has  similar  habits  of  growth. 
It  is  not  grown  as  a  forage  plant  outside  of  the  southern  States,  as  it  needs  a 
long  season  of  hot  weather,  abundant  moisture,  and  a  rich  soil  in  order  to  do 
well;  under  such  conditions  it  is  a  remarkably  vigorous  grower,  the  stalks 
reaching  10  to  12  feet  in  height,  with  an  abundant  supply  of  leaves  and  slen- 
der stems,  which  continue  to  grow  until  killed  by  frost.  The  Louisiana  station 
reports  a  yield  of  over  50  tons  of  green  forage  per  acre  of  this  crop  on  rich 
alluvial  soils.  Harvests  of  18  to  30  tons  per  acre  are  not  uncommon,  accord- 
ing to  Spillman.  Teosinte  makes  one  of  the  best  soiling  plants  in  the  South 
on  account  of  the  immense  yields  of  green  forage  which  it  produces.  It  stools 
freely  and  sometimes  grows  as  many  as  50  stalks  from  a  single  seed.  Its 
leaves  are  similar  to  those  of  sweet  sorghum,  but  much  larger,  and  the  stalks 
contain  8  to  10  per  cent  of  sugar.4  If  cut  when  from  four  to  five  feet  high,  it 
makes  an  excellent  fodder  and  will  produce  a  second  cutting  fully  as  large  as 
the  first.  If  left  until  September  or  October,  it  furnishes  good  material  for 
silage  and  yields  more  heavily  than  either  Indian  €orn  or  sorghum. 

These  remarks  apply  to  conditions  in  the  Gulf  States  only ;  the  value  of 
teosinte  outside  of  this  region  is  rather  doubtful.  In  green  condition  it  is 
very  watery,  containing  only  about  10  per  cent  of  dry  matter,  with  a  similar 
percentage  of  digestible  protein  as  green  corn  (0.9  per  cent),  and  less  than 
one-half  as  much  digestible  carbohydrates  and  fat  as  corn. 

Japanese  cane  is  another  Southern  forage  plant  that  has  come  into  some 
prominence  of  late  years.  It  is  a  variety  of  sugar  cane,  well  adapted  to  the 
climate  and  soil  of  the  Gulf  States.  It  will  do  well  in  any  section  in  which 
the  velvet  bean  will  mature  seed,  i.e.,  a  territory  within  200  to  250  miles 
north  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  It  is  used  as  a  silage  crop,  for  winter  pasture, 
or  stored  as  dry  forage.  The  Florida  station  found  it  one  of  the  cheapest  and 
most  economical  forage  crops  that  a  farmer  in  that  State  can  grow  for  silage."' 
The  chief  value  of  the  plant  lies  in  its  high  content  of  carbohydrates,  particu- 
larly sugar.  Like  sorghum,  it  should  be  left  to  mature  before  cutting, 
whether  intended  for  silage  or  for  dry  forage. 


QUESTIONS 

1.  State  the  relation  of  grain  to  fodder  secured  by  different  methods  of 

planting  Indian  corn. 

2.  What  proportion  of  nutrients  is  found   in  the  ear  corn  and  the  corn 

stover  in  the  ordinary  method  of  growing  Indian  corn? 

3.  Describe  the  value  of  Indian  corn,  grain  hay,  sorghum,  and  millets  for 

feeding  farm  animals. 

4  Farmers'  Bulletin  509f 

5  Bulletin  105. 


GREEN  FORAGE  AND  HAY  CROPS 


113 


II.    HAY  FROM  LEGUMINOUS  CROPS 

Value  of  Legumes. — The  legume  family  is  of  the  greatest  value 
to  the  stock  farmer  in  two  respects: 

1.  The  legumes  enrich  the  soil  with  nitrogenous  components 
which  have  been  built  up  largely  from  the  free  nitrogen  of  the  air 
by  the  bacteria  found  in  the  root  nodules  of  the  plants  of  this 
family.     As  the  nodules  decay  their  nitrogenous  compounds  are 
taken  up  by  the  host  plant  and  go  to  increase  the  nitrogen  content 
of  these  plants.    The  legumes  are,  therefore,  often  spoken  of  as  nitro- 
gen gatherers,  or  "  soil  renovators  "  or  "  improvers."     Deep-rooted 
legumes,  like  alfalfa  and  red  or  mammoth  clovers,  will  leave  in  the 
roots  and  stubble  a  large  proportion   (one-half  or  more)    of  the 
nitrogen  substances  elaborated  from  the  atmospheric  nitrogen  dur- 
ing the  growth  of  the  plants,  and,  on  their  decay,  the  nitrogen 
compounds  are  broken  down,  forming  humus  and  inorganic  nitro- 
gen compounds   (nitric  acid),  thus  adding  to  the  supply  of  soil 
fertility. 

2.  Legumes  furnish  larger  proportions  of  protein  and  valuable 
mineral  components,  lime,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash  available 
for  feeding  livestock  than  the  grasses.    Hay  from  leguminous  crops 
is  nearly  twice  as  rich  as  that  from  grasses,  and  larger  crops  per 
acre  are  also  obtained  than  from  grasses.    The  average  composition 
of  hay  from  grasses  and  from  leguminous  plants  will  be  seen  from 
the  following  table : 

Average  Composition  of  Hay  from  Grasses  and  Legumes,  in  Per  Cent 


Protein 

Carbohy- 
drates 

Fat 

Hay  from  grasses  

7.52 

7564 

2.70 

Hay  from  leguminous  plants  .  . 

14.37 

64.14 

3.23 

Assuming  that  common  grasses  will  yield  two  tons  of  hay  per 
acre  and  clovers  and  other  leguminous  plants  three  tons,  the  latter 
will  furnish  from  two  to  four  times  as  much  protein  per  acre  as 
the  common  grasses,  together  with  as  much  more  fat  and  somewhat 
more  carbohydrates.  They  also  contain  nearly  three  times  as  much 
nitrogen  and  about  twice  as  much  potash  as  does  hay  from  grasses.5 

The  more  general  culture  of  legumes  and  the  production  of 
hay  therefrom  during  the  last  couple  of  decades  have  come  largely 
as  a  result  of  the  teachings  of  modern  agricultural  science,  and  are 

5  Farmers'  Bulletin  1C. 
8 


114 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 


a  hopeful  sign  of  agricultural  progress  in  this  country.  The  legumes 
furnish  the  cheapest  sources  of  nitrogen  and  nitrogenous  feed  com- 
ponents available  to  the  farmer,  and  by  their  culture  he  will,  in  a 
measure,  become  independent  of  both  fertilizer  and  feed  manu- 
facturers. 

The  most  important  species  of  the  legumes  adopted  for  feed- 
ing farm  animals  are  clover  (red,  mammoth,  alsike,  white,  crimson, 

Japan),  cowpea,  soybean  (Fig. 
15),  vetch,  pea,  bean,  beggar 
weed,  and  peanut.  Brief  men- 
tion will  be  given  in  the  follow- 
ing pages  of  these  different 
species  that  are  of  special  im- 
portance as  forage  crops. 

Alfalfa  (Medicago  sativa)Q 
(Fig.  16)  is  one  of  our  most 
valuable  forage  plants.  In  the 
western  part  of  the  United 
States  it  ranks  first  in  impor- 
tance as  a  soiling  and  hay  crop. 
It  was  introduced  into  Cali- 

fornia  from  Chili  in  1854>  and 
gradually  spread  over  the  irri- 
gated regions  of  the  West,  and 
from  there  eastward,  until  it  is 
now  grown  in  every  State  in 
the  Union,  as  well  as  in  Canada. 
It  requires  a  deep,  well-drained 
and  fertile  soil,  with  a  perme- 
able subsoil,  for  its  best  develop- 
ment, and  under  optimum  con- 
ditions will  yield  enormous  crops 
of  forage.  Several  cuttings  are 
obtained  during  the  season  from  alfalfa  fields,  the  number  increas- 
ing from  two  to  six  or  more  as  we  go  southward.  The  highest 
yields  are  obtained  on  the  irrigated  land  in  southern  California 
and  the  southwestern  States,  where  eight  to  ten  tons  of  hay  per 
acre  are  frequently  obtained.  As  it  generally  takes  about  four  tons 
of  green  alfalfa  to  make  a  ton  of  hay,  this  corresponds  to  a  yield  of 
forty  tons  of  green  alfalfa  per  acre.  Good  alfalfa  fields  in  the 
humid  regions  will  yield  at  the  rate  of  four  to  five  tons  of  hay  per 

6  In  Europe  and  Canada  often  called  Lucern. 


FIG.  15. — A  soybean  nitrogen  factory.  The 
free  nitrogen  of  the  air  is  changed  by  the 
bacteria  in  the  root  nodules  into  forms  that 
are  used  by  the  host  plant  for  the  elaboration 
of  protein  compounds.  (Wisconsin  Station.) 


GREEN  FORAGE  AND  HAY  CROPS  115 

acre.  When  well  established  and  cared  for,  alfalfa  will  yield  large 
crops  for  a  series  of  years — at  least  in  the  West  and  Southwest, 
where  the  plants  are  not  weakened  by  rigorous  cold  of  winter. 
Weeds  that  may  appear  in  the  first  cutting  will  be  choked  out  by 
the  alfalfa  if  cut  before  seeding,  and  later  cuttings  will  give  a  clean 
hay.  As  already  stated,  foxtail  is  often  a  bad  weed  in  western 
alfalfa  fields  early  in  the  season,  so  that  the  first  cutting  of  hay 
may  cause  trouble  in  feeding  cattle,  sheep,  or  pigs  on  account  of 
the  rough  bristles  of  the  foxtail  heads.  If  this  cutting  is  placed 
in  the  silo,  there  will  be  no  difficulty  in  this  respect,  as  the  foxtail 
heads  are  softened  in  the  siloing  process  (p.  158). 


Fia.  16. — Alfalfa  will  furnish  an  abundance  of  green  feed  throughout  the  growing 
on.     It   is  rapidl     * 
(Pacific  Rural  Press. 


season.     It   is  rapidly  becoming  one  of   the  most  valuable   forage  crops   in   the   country, 
s.) 


Composition  of  Alfalfa. — Alfalfa  is  one  of  the  richest  forage 
crops  American  farmers  can  grow.  It  contains  more  protein  than 
any  of  the  leguminous  plants  used  for  feeding  purposes,  with  the 
possible  exception  of  sweet  clover,  peas,  and  vetches.  A  good  quality 
of  alfalfa  hay  contains  at  least  15  per  cent  protein,  2  per  cent  fat, 
and  about  25  per  cent  fiber,  while  the  lower  grades  contain  less  than 
10  per  cent  of  protein  and  over  30  per  cent  fiber.  Compared  with  red 
clover,  alfalfa  furnishes  a  heavier  yield  of  hay  that  contains  more 
protein  than  clover,  and,  once  established,  it  will  occupy  the  land 
for  a  considerable  period,  while  clover,  being  a  biennial,  must  be  re- 
seeded  every  three  years.  Alfalfa  has  a  high  digestibility  and  is 
greatly  relished  by  all  classes  of  farm  animals.  It  is  used  in  four 
different  ways  for  feeding,  as  soiling  crop,  for  hay,  silage,  or  for 
pasture.  It  is  one  of  our  most  valuable  green  feeds,  especially  for 
cattle,  hogs,  and  sheep ;  its  protein  content  renders  it  a  highly  de- 
sirable feed  for  dairy  cows  and  young  stock.  As  it  has  a  nutritive 


116 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 


ratio  of  about  1 :  3.6,  it  is  too  high  in  protein  for  the  best  results 
when  fed  alone,  even  with  the  animals  mentioned,  and  may,  there- 
fore, be  supplemented  to  advantage  with  Indian  corn  or  other 
starchy  feeds.  In  the  corn  belt  and  eastern  States  the  common 
farm-grown  feeds  'are  starchy  and  low  in  protein,  like  corn  fodder, 
mixed  or  timothy  hay,  cereals  and  roots,  and  alfalfa  is,  therefore, 
of  special  value  as  a  supplemental  feed  in  this  important  agricultural 
section  of  our  country.  It  may  be  partly  substituted  for  wheat 


FIQ.  17. — Curing  and  harvesting  alfalfa.     ("Productive  Farming,"  Davis.) 

bran  or  similar  feeds  in  rations  for  dairy  cows,  in  the  proportion  of 
about  1%  pounds  of  alfalfa  to  1  pound  of  bran,  and  the  bill  for 
concentrates  thus  greatly  reduced.  Choice  grades  of  alfalfa  will 
nearly  approximate  wheat  bran  in  feeding  value,  and  can  generally 
be  produced  at  a  cost  less  than  one-half  of  what  this  concentrate 
commands  (Fig.  17). 

Alfalfa  furnishes  an  excellent  pasture  after  the  first  year,  under 
certain  restrictions,  viz.,  that  it  is  not  eaten  off  too  closely,  espe- 
cially in  the  fall,  and  that  cattle  and  sheep  are  not  put  on  the  pasture 
when  hungry  and  while  the  dew  is  on ;  otherwise  they  are  likely  to 


GREEN  FORAGE  AND  HAY  CROPS  117 

bloat,  death  resulting  in  severe  cases.  Alfalfa  pasture  is  especially 
valuable  for  dairy  cows,  growing  cattle,  brood  sows,  and  young 
farm  animals  of  the  various  classes.  It  makes  one  of  the  best  hog 
pastures  in  the  country;  an  acre  will  supply  sufficient  feed  for  ten 
to  twenty  hogs,  and  these  will  make  good  gains  on  it  with  a  small 
grain  allowance  of  corn,  barley,  or  shorts,  viz.,  600  to  1000  pounds 
of  pork  for  the  season.  Alfalfa-fed  beef  goes  on  the  market  without 
any  grain  on  the  Pacific  coast;  in  the  eastern  and  central  States 
such  cattle  are  fattened  with  corn  or  small  grains  with  excellent 
results. 

Changes  in  Composition. — The  changes  in  the  chemical  com- 
position of  alfalfa  with  the  progress  of  the  growing  period  have 
already  been  considered  (p.  56) ;  briefly  stated,  young  plants  contain 
most  water,  ash,  and  protein  (total  and  amides),  and  older  plants 
Contain  most  fiber.  The  digestibility  of  the  plant  also  decreases 
as  it  approaches  maturity, ,  Owing  to  the  large  proportion  of  valu- 
able feed  materials  in  the  leaves  and  tender  parts,  carefully-cured 
alfalfa  hay  cut  at  the  right  time,  when  new  shoots  are  appearing, 
will  have  a  much  higher  feeding  value  than  hay  that  has  been  left 
standing  too  long,  or  cured  by  faulty  or  careless  methods  so  as  to 
lose  a  considerable  portion  of  the  leaves,  or  that  has  been' exposed 
to  rain  storms  after  cutting.  Much  of  the  alfalfa  hay  is  of  poor 
quality,  from  one  or  more  of  the  reasons  just  given,  especially  the 
first — too-late  cutting  and  careless  methods  of  hay-making.  Choice 
or  prime  alfalfa  hay  7  is  well  worth  the  high  price  that  it  commands 
on  the  hay  market  in  comparison  with  the  lower  grades.  The 
experience  of  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College  with  regard  to  late- 
cut  hay  is  worthy  of  note  in  this  connection  :8  "  The  decrease  in 
digestibility  is  so  rapid  that  by  the  time  the  plant  has  passed  the 
full  blooming  stage,  it  appears  to  be  unsafe  to  feed  it  in  large  quan- 
tities to  any  animal.  .  .  .  Because  of  the  rapid  decrease  in  feed 
value,  also  because  of  the  japidity  with  which  the  new  crop  comes 
on  when  the  old  one  is  removed,  and  because  of  the  danger  in  allow- 
ing stock  to  eat  the  fodder  when  the  plant  becomes  hard  and  woody, 
alfalfa,  whether  in  the  pasture  field  or  in  the  hay  field,  should  not  be 
allowed  to  stand  later  than  the  early  blossoming  stage." 

Red  clover  (Trifolium  pratense)  is  grown  in  pure  seeding 
mostly  for  the  purpose  of  seed  production;  for  forage  purposes  it 
is,  as  a  rule,  sown  with  timothy,  and  with  this  plant  forms  the  main 
hay  crop  in  eastern  and  northern  United  States.  Clover  furnishes 

7  Woll,  "  Handbook  for  Farmers  and  Dairymen,"  p.  40Ga. 

8  Report,  1898. 


118  DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 

two  to  four  crops  a  year.  The  yields  obtained  vary  from  two  to  five 
tons  per  acre,  according  to  the  season  and  the  fertility  of  the  soil. 
The  yield  of  the  last  crop  is  especially  variable  and  is  frequently 
too  small  to  be  worth  while  cutting.  If  it  is  not  cut,,  the  clover 
is  generally  pastured  by  cattle  or  sheep.  At  early  stages  of  growth, 
clover  is  very  low  in  dry  matter,  viz.,  less  than  10  per  cent,  and 
relatively  small  yields  of  hay  are  secured  from  early  cuttings.  On 
good  land  very  heavy  yields  are  obtained,  however,  aggregating  16 
•to  20  tons  of  green  clover  for  the  season.  The  tendency  of  green 
clover  to  cause  bloat  in  cattle  and  sheep  may  be  overcome  by  feed- 
ing some  dry  forage  prior  to  turning  on  to  pasture,  or  by  placing 
hay  or  straw  in  feed  racks  in  the  field.  According  to  Henry,  cattle 
and  sheep  will  resort  instinctively  to  the  dry  feed  when  bloat 
threatens. 

Experience  and  chemical  analyses  have  shown  that  the  best  time 
to  cut  red  clover  for  hay  is  when  about  one-third  of  the  heads  have 
turned  brown.  The  crop  then  yields  the  maximum  amounts  of 
total  dry  matter  and  digestible  nutrients.  Eed  clover  hay  is  an 
excellent  feed  for  dairy  cows,  sheep,  pigs,  and  all  kinds  of  young 
stock.  It  ranks  second  to  alfalfa  in  feeding  value  for  these  animals. 
Clover  hay  is  less  adapted  to  working  horses  on  account  of  its 
liability  to  be  dusty.  This  is  a  disadvantage  that  hay  from  all 
legumes  has,  compared  with  that  from  grasses,  and  comes  from 
the  larger  proportion  of  leaves  in  the  former;  these  are  brittle  and 
readily  crumble  into  dust  unless  the  clover  is  carefully  cured  and 
handled. 

Clover  makes  an  excellent  supplementary  feed  to  the  corn  plant, 
timothy,  and  other  crops  grown  on  the  farm,  as  these  are,  in  general, 
of  a  starchy  character  and  low  in  protein  and  mineral  substances. 
In  the  feeding  of  growing  animals  or  dairy  cows  clover  may,  there- 
fore, make  up  a  part  of  the  ration  to  great  advantage,  and  is  much 
relished  by  them. 

Besides  being  a  valuable  hay  and  soiling  crop,  clover  makes  a 
good  silage  crop,  if  properly  put  up  in  air-tight,  tall  silos.  The 
main  conditions  for  making  good  clover  silage,  or  silage  from  other 
legumes,  will  be  further  discussed  in  the  chapter  on  silos.  We 
shall  see  that  the  crop  must  be  siloed  directly  after  being  cut,  before 
it  has  lost  much  moisture,  and  that  it  is  preferably  run  through  a 
cutter,  and  must  be  carefully  distributed  and  packed  in  the  silo  so 
as  to  exclude  as  much  of  the  air  as  possible.  Even  well-preserved 
clover  silage,  as  that  of  other  legumes,  has  often  a  strong  and  not 
particularly  pleasant  odor,  and  is  not  quite  as  palatable  to  dairy 


GREEN  FORAGE  AND  HAY  CROPS  119 

cows  or  other  farm  animals  as  corn  silage,  as  it  soon  dries  out  on 
exposure  to  air.  It  may,  however,  be  considered  of  similar  feeding 
value  as  corn  silage,  and  makes  a  valuable  feed  for  farmers  who 
have  difficulty  in  curing  clover  into  hay  on  account  of  rainy  weather. 
Like  other  legumes,  clover  may  be  safely  placed  in  the  silo  wet  with 
dew  or  rain.  If  it  has  been  allowed  to  dry  out  before  being  siloed, 
water  should  be  added  as  it  is  elevated  into  the  silo  or  after  each 
load  is  filled  into  the  silo. 

Mammoth  clover  (Trifolium  medium)  is  a  somewhat  later 
variety  than  red  clover,  generally  maturing  three  to  five  weeks  later. 
As  its  name  suggests,  it  has  a  larger  and  coarser  growth  than  red 
clover  and  produces  but  one  crop  a  year.  It  is,  therefore,  frequently 
pastured  for  several  weeks  in  the  early  spring,  and  will  make  a 
good  growth  when  the  stock  is  removed.  It  requires  a  similar  soil 
and  climate  as  red  clover,  and  is  better  able  to  thrive  under  un- 
favorable conditions  than  this  crop  on  account  of  its  stronger  root 
system  and  its  perennial  growth.  It  does  not  make  as  palatable 
hay  as  red  clover  on  account  of  its  ranker  habit  of  growth,  but  its 
ability  to  do  well  on  relatively  poor  soils  and  its  perennial  character 
make  it  a  valuable  hay  crop  to  the  stock  farmer. 

Alsike  or  Swedish  clover  (Trifolium  hybridum)  is  grown  for 
both  hay  and  pasture,  often  in  mixture  with  red  clover  and  timothy, 
or  with  red  clover  only.  It  produces  a  fine,  soft  hay  that  is  greatly 
relished  by  stock  and  eaten  without  waste.  Alsike  flourishes  on 
land  that  is  too  acid  or  too  moist  for  other  clovers,  although  it  will 
not  grow  in  really  wet  soils.  While  red  clover  usually  dies  out  the 
third  year,  alsike  will  often  live  for  several  years,  a  feature  which 
greatly  increases  its  value  for  pasture.9 

Crimson  clover  (Trifolium  incarnatum,  Fig.  18)  is  an  annual, 
especially  valuable  as  a  cover  crop  in  orchards  and  for  green  manur- 
ing. It  is  also  used  for  pasture,  as  a  soiling  crop,  and,  to  a  limited 
extent,  for  silage.  It  does  not  make  as  satisfactory  hay  as  other 
clovers  on  account  of  the  minute  barbed  hairs  on  its  blossom  heads, 
which  become  spiky  as  the  heads  ripen.  Hay  from  over-ripe  crimson 
clover  tends  to  make  hair  balls,  often  3  to  4  inches  in  diameter,  of 
compact,  felt-like  structure,  in  the  stomachs  of  animals,  especially 
horses,  and  cases  are  on  record  of  animals  dying  as  a  result  of  eating 
such  hay.10  The  difficulty  may  be  avoided  by  cutting  the  hay  at 

9  White  clover  (Trifolium  repens)  is  not  a  hay  crop,  being  used  in 
pastures  and  lawns  only,  in  mixtures  with  grasses. 

"Division  of  Botany,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Circular  8; 
Farmers'  Bulletin  579. 


120  DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 

the  time  of  blossoming.  This'  clover  is  best  adapted  to  the  climate 
of  the  south  Atlantic  States,  and  has  been  especially  recommended 
by  the  New  Jersey  and  Delaware  experiment  stations. 

Japan  clover  (Lespedeza  striata)  is  a  southern  forage  plant  of 
special  value  for  pasture;  it  also  furnishes  a  good  quality  of  hay 
if  cut  when  in  full  bloom.  It  will  yield  one  to  three  tons  of  hay 
per  acre  on  good  land,  of  a  quality  that  is  considered  equal  to  the 
best  clover  hay.  According  to  Tracy,  Japan  clover,  with  cotton  seed 
as  grain  feed,  is  the  cheapest  milk-producing  ration  in  many  sections 


FIG.  18. — Crimson  clover.     ("Productive  Farming,"  Davis.) 

in  the  South.  It  is  of  great  value  to  southern  agriculture  as  a  soil- 
renovator,  increasing  the  nitrogen  content  and  improving  the  com- 
position and  texture  of  soils  that  are  largely  unproductive,  so  that 
they  will  grow  other  crops.  It  affords  valuable  pasturage  for  cattle, 
horses,  sheep,  and  hogs,  though  the  animals  must  be  accustomed  to 
it  in  order  to  relish  it.  It  is  considered  by  some  authorities  the 
best  pasture  plant  for  the  poorer  clay  soils  of  the  cotton  belt.  It 
does  not  differ  greatly  in  composition  from  red  clover,  the  hay 
being  somewhat  lower  in  ash  and  fiber  and  higher  in  nitrogen-free 
extract  than  red  clover  hay.11 

11  Farmers'  Bulletin  441. 


GREEN  FORAGE  AND  HAY  CROPS 


121 


Sweet  clover  (Trifolium  melilotus,  Fig.  19)  is  grown  as  a 
forage  crop  to  a  limited  extent  in  some  of  the  central  and  southern 
States.  It  will  grow  on  soils  that  are  too  poor  in  humus  for  the 
successful  production  of  either  alfalfa  or  red  clover.  Sweet  clover 
may  be  used  as  hay,  silage,  soiling  crop,  or  as  a  pasture  for  all 
classes  of  farm  animals.  It  must  be  cut  before  blooming,  since 
the  plant  rapidly  becomes  coarse  and  unpalatable  to  stock  after 
this  stage.  Owing  to  the  presence  of  a  bitter  principle  (cumarin) 
in  sweet  clover,  animals  at  first  refuse  to  eat  it,  but  appear  to  relish 
the  plant  when  once  accustomed  to  it,  whether  in  dry  or  succulent 
form.  Sweet  clover  stands  next  to  cowpea  hay  and  alfalfa  in  its  con- 
tent of  crude  and  digestible  protein,  but  is  also  somewhat  higher  in 
fiber  than  other  legumes. 

Average  Composition  of  Leguminous  Hays,  in  Per  Cent 12 


Digestible 

Protein 

Fat 

Fiber 

Ash  ' 

Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 
and  fat 

Nutri- 
tive 
ratio 

Sweet  clover  hay 
Alfalfa  .  .  ... 

13.3 
14.3 

2.1 
2.2 

26.9 
25.0 

7.5 
7.4 

9.9 
11.0 

40.8 

423 

1:4.1 
1-38 

Red  clover  
Cowpea  

12.3 
16.6 

3.3 
2.2 

24.8 
20.1 

6.2 
7.5 

6.8 
10.8 

39.6 
41.1 

1:5.8 
1-38 

Canada  field  peas  (Canadian  pQas,Pisum  sativum,  var.  arvense) 
are  grown  extensively  in  the  States  along  the  northern  border  of 
our  country  that  are  favored  with  fairly  cool  summer  temperatures 
and  a  moderate  amount  of  precipitation.  Although  its  culture  in 
this  country  is  extending,  we  are  still  far  behind  Canada  in  taking 
advantage  of  the  possibilities  of  this  crop.  Field  peas  are  grown 
for  seed  or  for  forage  as  a  soiling  crop,  for  pasture,  or  cured  as 
dry  forage.  The  seed  makes  a  valuable  rich  grain  feed  for  horses, 
cattle,  and  sheep,  and  is  generally  fed  mixed  with  oats,  wheat 
bran,  etc. 

Peas  are  frequently  grown  in  conjunction  with  oats  as  a  soiling 
crop  for  milch  cows,  or  for  pasturage  for  sheep  and  swine,  for  both 
of  which  purposes  it  is  of  superior  value.  Large  areas  of  peas 
sown  alone  early  in  the  spring  at  the  rate  of  two  bushels  per  acre, 
with  a  small  amount  of  wheat  or  oats,  are  grown  in  the  northern 
mountainous  States  for  sheep  and  lamb  feeding,  These  are  turned 
on  to  the  land  when  the  peas  are  ripe,  and  harvest  both  grain  and 

12  Farmers'  Bulletin  485 ;  Michigan  Circular  23. 


122  DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 

vines,  making  a  gain  of  about  8  pounds  per  month  while  thus 
grazing.  An  acre  of  peas  will  fatten  10  to  15  lambs,  putting  these 
in  the  finest  possible  condition  for  the  market  in  the  course  of  70  to 
90  days.  A  somewhat  longer  period  is  required  for  ewes  that  are 
lean  when  first  turned  into  the  pasture.  Swine  will  keep  healthy 
and  make  rapid  gains  on  a  pea  pasture  alone  when  turned  in  as 
soon  as  the  peas  are  full-sized.  For  both  these  classes  of  animals 
the  growing  of  field  peas  presents  great  possibilities  in  the  northern 
sections  of  the  country  where  this  crop  grows  to  the  best  advantage. 


FIG.  19. — Sweet  clover  is  an  excellent  soil  builder.  Cut  for  hay  at  an  early  stage 
(before  blooming),  it  makes  a  good  quality  of  hay  which  resembles  alfalfa  in  composition. 
(Breeders'  Gazette.) 

When  peas  are  grown  for  canneries,  the  whole  crop  is  now 
generally  delivered,  and  the  peas  are  separated  from  the  vines  at 
the  factory  by  means  of  threshers.  The  vines,  which  often  contain 
many  peas  with  pods,  are  either  siloed  and  the  silage  used  for 
sheep  and  steer  feeding,  or  cured  into  hay.  Pea  vines  make  a  very 
nutritious  hay  that  is  relished  better  by  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep 
than  the  straw  of  the  grain  crops  (Stone).  If  cut  before  maturity 
and  well  cured,  it  appoaches  clover  hay  in  feeding  value.13 

13  Delaware  Bulletin  41. 


GREEN  FORAGE  AND  HAY  CROPS  123 

Vetches. — Only  two  of  the  vetches  grown  in  this  country  are 
of  importance  for  feeding  purposes :  Common  vetch  (  Vitia  sativa) 
and  hairy  or  Russian  vetch  (V.  villosa,  Fig.  20).  The  former 
is  an  annual  grown  rather  extensively  for  hay  on  the  Pacific  coast 
and  to  some  extent  in  the  South.  There  are  two  strains :  Winter 
vetch,  sown  in  the  fall,  and  spring  vetch,  sown  in  the  spring.  Hairy 
vetch  is  a  biennial,  much  more  hardy  than  the  common  vetch,  and 


FIQ.  20. — A  South  Carolina  vetch  field.  Hairy  vetch  will  grow  in  most  sections  of 
the  country,  yielding,  on  the  average,  about  two  tons  of  hay  of  excellent  quality.  It  is  a 
good  crop  to  grow  where  red  clover  fails,  and  also  makes  a  good  cover  crop.  (Breeders' 
Gazette.) 

can  be  grown  almost  anywhere  in  the  country,  withstanding  well 
the  winters  of  northeastern  United  States.  Both  vetches  make  an 
excellent  quality  of  hay  and  also  furnish  luxurious  pasture  that  is 
eagerly  eaten  by  farm  animals.  The  yields  of  hay  obtained  average 
about  2~y2  tons  to  the  acre.  Hairy  vetch  is  perhaps  the  best  legume 
for  sections  where  red  clover  fails,  and  this  is  especially  true  for 
sandy  soils.  In  the  northern  States  it  can  be  used  to  seed  in  corn 


124 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 


at  the  last  cultivation,  and  will  furnish  a  subsequent  crop  for  green 
manuring  or  hay.14 

Cowpea  (Vigna  cutjang)  is  grown  for  both  forage  and  seed. 
The  latter  is  used  as  a  food  for  both. man  and  beast.  The  plant 
reaches  its  highest  development  in  the  South,  where  it  has  been  of 
untold  value  in  enriching  poor  soils  and  furnishing  abundant  green 
and  dry  feed  for  farm  animals.  During  the  last  decade  experiments 
have  been  conducted  in  many  States  with  the  view  to  determining 
the  value  of  the  cowpea  as  a  forage  plant,  and  its  cultivation  has 
extended  considerably  northward  as  a  result.  It  has  been  found 
to  do  well  in  the  lower  New  England  States,  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois, 
Missouri,  and  Kansas;  in  the  States  east  and  south  of  those  men- 
tioned its  agricultural  value  is  fully  established.  The  entire  plant 
has  a  high  feeding  value,  and  it  is  generally  fed,  seed  and  all,  to 
farm  animals  in  the  South.  The  Alabama  station  obtained  an 
average  yield  of  about  3600  pounds  of  hay  and  510  pounds  of  peas 
in  trials  continued  for  three  years.15  A  good  quality  of  cowpea 
hay  possesses  a  similar  value  as  alfalfa  hay,  and  is  nearly  as  valuable 
as  wheat  bran,  ton  for  ton;  hence  it  is  often  used  in  rations  for 
dairy  cows  to  take  the  place  of  a  portion  of  the  concentrates,  as  is 
the  case  with  alfalfa.  In  this  way  it  is  often  possible  to  lower  con- 
siderably the  cost  of  production  of  milk  and  butter  fat.  In  a  feed- 
ing trial  with  dairy  cows  at  Alabama  station16  a  saving  of  23  per 
cent  in  the  cost  of  the  ration  was  thus  effected  by  substituting  cow- 
pea  hay  for  wheat  bran.  Experiments  have  shown  that  one-half 
of  the  concentrates  fed  to  cows  or  fattening  steers  may  be  replaced 
by  cowpea  hay  without  decreasing  the  feeding  value  of  the  rations. 
The  chemical  composition  of  the  different  parts  of  the  cowpea  plant 
is  shown  in  the  following  table : 

Composition  of  Parts  of  the  Cowpea  Plant,  in  Per  Cent 


Moisture 

Ash 

Protein 

Fiber 

Nitrogen- 
free 
extract 

Fat 

Green  forage  .  .  . 
Hay  

83.60 
10.70 

1.70 
7.50 

2.40 
16.60 

4.80 
20.10 

7.10 
42.20 

0.40 
2.90 

Silage  

79.30 

2.90 

2.70 

6.00 

7.60 

1.50 

Seed,  shelled... 

14.80 

3.20 

20.80 

4.10 

55.70 

1.40 

Cowpeas  are  often  planted  with  either  sorghum  or  Indian  corn, 
especially  if  the  Indian  corn  is  intended  for  silage;  this  makes  a 

14  Farmers'  Bulletin  515. 

16  Bulletin  118. 

16  Bulletin  123;  Experiment  Station  Record  15,  p.  72. 


GREEN  FORAGE  AND  HAY  CROPS 


125 


very  satisfactory  combination  in  regions  where  the  cowpea  does  well 
and  reaches  maturity  at  about  the  same  time  as  either  sorghum  or 
corn.  Sumac  sorghum  and  some  vigorous  growing  variety  of  cow- 
pea,  like  Brabham  or  Unknown,  appear  to  give  the  best  crops,  six 
parts  of  cowpeas  with  one  part  of  sorghum  making  about  the  desired 
proportionate  stand  in  the  mixture.  The  hay  is  greatly  relished 
by  stock  if  cured  properly.17 

Soybean  (Glycyne  hispida,  Fig.  21)  is  of  greater  importance 
for  seed  production  than  for  forage  purposes,  except  in  the  South, 
where  its  value  as  a  forage  plant,  for  feeding  green,  as  hay  or  as 
silage,  is  about  as  great  as  for  production  of  seed.  It  is  grown  for 
the  sake  of  the  seed  throughout  the  United  States  about  as  far 
north  as  corn  will  mature.  In  the  Gulf  States  it  will  usually  yield 
six  to  ten  tons  of  green  forage  or  silage  to  the  acre  and  one  and  one- 
half  to  three  tons  of  hay.  Soybean  fodder  is  a  high-protein  feed 
that  can  be  produced  under  practically  the  same  conditions  as  can 
Indian  corn.18  The  composition  of  the  soybean  plant  is  quite  simi- 
lar to  that  of  alfalfa,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  following  table : 
Composition  of  Soybean  Plant,  in  Per  Cent 


Digestible 

Water 

Fat 

Fiber 

Ash 

Carbo- 

N R 

Protein 

hydrates 

and  fat 

1: 

Green  fodder  

80.0 

.9 

5.4 

2.1 

2.7 

9.7 

3.6 

Hay  

11.8 

4.3 

24.2 

7.0 

10.6 

43.6 

4.1 

Straw  

15.0 

1.8 

36.1 

6.1 

2.4 

40.2 

6.8 

Silage 

74.2 

2.2 

9.7 

2.8 

2.7 

11.7 

4.3 

Seed  

14.0 

16.7 

4.7 

5.0 

28.4 

57.9 

2.0 

Alfalfa  hay  

8.1 

2.1 

28.9 

8.8 

10.5 

42.5 

4.0 

Velvet  bean  (Mucuna  utilis)  is  another  forage  crop  that  is 
highly  recommended  for  southern  agricultural  conditions.  It  is 
considered  especially  suited  to  Florida,  but  has  a  similar  range  of 
culture  as  Japanese  cane  (p.  112).  It  is  grown  for  both  seed  and 
forage;  in  the  latter  case  the  crop  may  be  cut  for  hay  when  the 
young  buds  are  well  formed,  allowed  to  wilt  for  about  48  hours,  and 
cured  in  shocks  for  several  days;  or  it  may  be  left  in  the  field 
throughout  the  winter  and  fed  as  needed.  The  beans  contain  about 
18.8  per  cent  protein,  6.3  per  cent  fat,  and  53.7  per  cent  nitrogen- 
free  extract.  They  are  fed  in  the  same  manner  as  cowpeas  or  cotton 
seed  in  the  South,  and  are  relished  by  all  farm  animals  except 
horses,  that  apparently  do  not  care  for  them.  Velvet  bean  forage 

17  Farmers'  Bulletin  458. 

"Cornell  Bulletin  310;   Delaware  Bulletin  96;   Farmers'  Bulletin  58. 


126  DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 

has  also  a  high  feeding  value  and  should  be  fed  along  with  other 
kinds  of  hay  or  starchy  concentrates.  Fed  in  this  manner,  it  makes 
a  valuable  feed  for  all  classes  of  live  stock.19 

Florida  beggar  weed  (Desmodium  tortuosum)  is  a  sub-tropical 
plant  that  is  grown  in  the  South  for  either  green  forage  or  for  hay, 
and  is  well  liked  by  all  classes  of  farm  stock.  It  has  rather  woody 
stalks,  from  three  to  eight  or  ten  feet  high,  with  abundant  leafage ; 
when  grown  for  hay  it  is  cut  at  the  beginning  of  bloom;  three  to 
four  feet  high,  when  it  makes  a  very  fine  quality  of  hay,  yielding 
about  four  tons  to  the  acre.  The  hay  contains  about  12  per  cent  of 


Fia.  21. — A  field  of  soybeans,  a  valuable  protein  feed,   both  for  seed  production  and  as  a 
forage  crop.     (Wisconsin  Station.) 

crude  protein  and  29  per  cent  of  fiber,  on  the  average,  indicating  that 
it  is  of  somewhat  lower  feeding  value  than  alfalfa  or  clover,  ton 
for  ton.20 

Peanut  (Amcliis  hypogea). — This  legume  is  grown  for  com- 
mercial purposes  in  the  south  Atlantic  States  and  westward  to  and 
including  California.  The  fruit  or  nut  is  matured  beneath  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground,  instead  of  above  ground,  as  in  the  usual  order 
of  things.  It  is  an  important  human  food,  and  the  by-products, 
cull  nuts,  pods,  and  vines,  furnish  excellent  forage  for  farm  stock. 
The  tops  of  the  plant  are  also  often  cut  and  cured  in  the  same 
manner  as  other  legumes,  and  make  a  hay  of  a  feeding  value  almost 
equal  to  that  of  clover  hay.  Peanuts  form  a  valuable  substitute  for 

19  Farmers'  Bulletin  451;   Division  of  Agrostology,  U.  S.  Department 
of  Agriculture,  Circular  14;  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  Bulletin  141,  iii. 

20  Division  of  Agrostology,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Circular  13. 


GREEN  FORAGE  AND  HAY  CROPS  127 

cowpeas,  especially  on  soils  that  are  not  adapted  to  the  growing 
of  this  crop.  One  to  two  tons  of  hay  per  acre  may  be  obtained  by 
planting  the  Spanish  peanut  in  rows  24  to  30  inches  apart  and  quite 
close  in  the  row.  After  the  hay  has  been  removed,  the  pods  can  be 
turned  out  by  means  of  a  plow,  and  cured  and  stored  for  winter 
feeding.  Instead  of  harvesting  the  crop  in  this  manner,  hogs  are 
frequently  turned  in  to  gather  it.21 

Poisonous  Plants. — A  number  of  plants  that  are  poisonous  to  stock  are 
found  in  different  parts  of  the  country,  the  more  important  of  them  being 
loco  weeds,  larkspur  (Astragalus),  death  camas,  water  hemlock  (Cicuta), 
common  horsetail  ( Equisetum ) ,  etc.  Serious  losses  are  often  sustained  by 
animals  eating  these  plants,  especially  in  western  grazing  districts  where 
sheep,  cattle,  or  horses  are  kept  in  large  numbers  and  eat  these  plants  for 
want  of  better  feed. 

Marsh  has  shown  that  stock  poisoning  as  a  general  rule  is  due  to  a 
scarcity  of  feed.22  He  concludes,  from  his  investigations  of  the  subject  in  the 
western  range  country  and  elsewhere,  that  stock  seldom  eat  poisonous  plants 
by  choice,  but  only  when  induced  or  compelled  by  a  scarcity  of  feed.  The 
following  precautions  are  recommended: 

"  1.  Stock  should  not  be  turned  out  upon  the  range  where  there  is  little 
to  eat  except  poisonous  plants.  This  is  especially  dangerous  when  the  stock 
have  been  on  dry  feed. 

"  2.  In  a  region  where  certain  areas  are  definitely  known  to  be  infested 
with  poisonous  plants,  stock  should  be  kept  away.  This  is  especially  neces- 
sary when  the  general  range  is  short,  either  because  grass  has  not  started 
or  because  it  has  been  overgrazed.  When  the  range  is  well  covered  with  good 
grasses,  herding  away  from  poisonous  areas  is  ordinarily  unnecessary. 

"  3.  When  stock  are  trailed  from  one  place  to  another,  they  should,  so 
far  as  possible,  be  driven  through  a  country  with  plenty  of  good  feed.  If  it 
is  necessary  to  drive  them  through  a  locality  supposed  to  be  infested  with 
poisonous  plants,  care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  the  stock  are  not  hungry 
when  going  through  this  region.  It  is  much  better  to  make  such  a  drive  in 
the  afternoon  rather  than  in  the  morning.  Special  precautions  must  be  taken 
when  it  is  necessary  to  pass  over  a  trail  that  has  been  used  by  many  others, 
for  all  good  feed  will  have  disappeared  and  the  stock  will  eat  whatever  is 
left.  Sheep  should  not  be  bedded  for  several  successive  nights  in  the  same 
place." 

Other  sources  of  poisoning  are  plants  containing  prussic  acid,  such  as 
second-growth  sorghum  and  kafir,  cornstalk  disease,  ergot,  corn  cockle, 
castor  beans,  etc.-  QUEKnONS 

1.  What  are  the  special  points  in  favor  of  growing  leguminous  hay  crops? 

2.  Discuss  briefly  the  value  of  alfalfa  to  the  American  stock  farmer. 

3.  Mention  the  different  species  of  clover  used  for  hay  crops,  and  give  the 

main  points  in  favor  of  each. 

4.  Describe  the  value  and  uses  of  field  peas,  vetches,  cowpea,  and  soybean  in 

stock  feeding. 

5.  Give  a  number  of  southern  leguminous  forage  crops  and  state  their  main 

uses  and  feeding  values. 

6.  Name  some  of  the  more  important  poisonous  plants.     State  where  stock 

poisoning  most  frequently  occurs  and  with  what  classes  of  farm  animals. 

7.  How  may  poisoning  of  stock  be  best  avoided? 

21  Farmers'  Bulletin  431.  ^Farmers'  Bulletin  536. 

23  See  Chestnut,  "  Thirty  Poisonous  Plants  of  the  United  States," 

Farmers'  Bulletin  66,  1897;  Pammel,  "Manual  of  Poisonous  Plants," 
Cedar  Rapids,  Iowa,  1911. 


128 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 


III.    STRAW  OF  CEREALS  AND  LEGUMES 

Straw  is  the  stems  and  leaves  of  cereals  and  legumes  after  the 
ripe  seeds  have  been  removed.  During  the  latter  stage  of  the  vegeta- 
tive period  of  the  plants  soluble  materials  are  transferred  to  the 
seeds,  and  other  parts  of  the  plants  are  left  relatively  depleted  in 
feed  components.  Hence  we  find  that  straw  is  low  in  protein  and 
fat  and  in  more  valuable  carbohydrates,  although  still  high  in  nitro- 
gen-free extract  and  likewise  high  in  fiber.  Straw  from  cereals  cut 
at  different  stages  of  ripening  differs  considerably  in  chemical  com- 
position and  feeding  value.  Kellner  gives  the  following  analyses 
of  oat  straw  cut  at  three  different  periods  of  growth — unripe,  ripe, 
and  over-ripe : 24 

Composition  of  Dry  Matter  of  Oat  Straw  at  Different  Periods  of  Ripening, 

in  Per  Cent 


Crude 
protein 

Fat 

Nitrogen- 
free 
extract 

Fiber 

Ash 

Unrip6 

10.1 

1.9 

50.6 

29.4 

80 

Ripe 

4.9 

1.2 

48.6 

37.8 

7.5 

Over-ripe                 .    ... 

4.3 

1.4 

36.9 

49.8 

7.6 

The  amount  of  net  energy  yielded  in  the  digestion  of  straw  cut 
at  the  usual  time  is  small,  and  in  some  cases,  like  coarse  rye  or 
wheat  straw,  it  is  not  sufficient  to  maintain  an  animal  at  an  even 
body  weight.  Oat  and  barley  straw  is  more  valuable  than  the 
other  kinds  of  straw,  and  is  used  as  a  regular  part  of  the  feed 
rations  of  horses  and  fattening  cattle,  especially  in  European  coun- 
tries. It  is  generally  cut  fine  and  fed  wet,  mixed  with  concentrates 
or  sliced  roots.  It  is  fed  in  this  way  both  for  the  net  nutrients  that 
it  supplies  and  also,  perhaps  largely,  because  it  is  believed  to  act 
as  a  filler  and  enables  animals  to  digest  their  grain  feed  more 
thoroughly  when  thus  diluted  with  cut  straw. 

The  different  kinds  of  cereal  straw  have,  on  the  average,  the 
following  chemical  composition :  3  to  4  per  cent  total  protein ;  36 
to  39  per  cent  fiber;  36  to  46  per  cent  nitrogen-free  extract,  and  1 
to  2  per  cent  fat. 

The  digestibility  of  the  dry  matter  and  the  nitrogen-free  extract 
is  low,  viz.,  40  to  50  per  cent,  and  that  of  protein  only  20  to  30 
per  cent.  The  total  digestible  matter  in  straw  ranges  from  37  to 

24 "  The  Scientific  Feeding  of  Animals,"  p.  169. 


GREEN  FORAGE  AND  HAY  CROPS         129 

43  per  cent.  Practical  feeding  experience  and  the  results  of  chemi- 
cal analyses  and  digestion  trials  suggest  that  cereal  straw  ranks  in 
the  following  order  as  regards  feeding  value :  Oat,  barley,  rye,  and 
wheat  straw.  Straw  is  often  used  for  feeding  in  the  stack.  On 
grain  farms  where  straw  is  abundant,  only  little  stock  is,  as  a  rule, 
kept,  and  the  straw,  if  utilized  at  all,  is  fed  in  the  stack,  or  baled  and 
shipped  to  be  used  for  bedding* 

Cornstalks.— The  straw  of  the  Indian  corn  plant,  known  as 
stover,  cornstalks,  or  corn  fodder,  is  an  important  rough  feed  on  all 
American  farms  where  corn  is  grown.  It  is  either  left  standing  in 
the  field  where  cattle  nibble  the  leaves  and  tender  parts  during  the 
fall  and  winter  months,  or  it  is  cut  and  cured  in  the  field  in  shocks 
that  are  later  brought  in  and  used  as  feed  for  cattle,  sheep,  and 
horses  (p.  108).  The  cornstalks  are  now  often  run  through  a 
shredder  in  the  same  operation  as  the  shock  corn  is  being  husked, 
and  the  shredded  fodder  is  stacked  for  use  in  the  fall  and  winter. 
The  shredded  cornstalks  make  a  fair  quality  of  rough  feed,  which  is 
generally  eaten  up  clean  by  farm  animals.  This  is  never  the  case 
when  whole  cornstalks  are  fed,  and  rarely  so  when  they  are  cut 
before  feeding.  Shredded  fodder  also  makes  a  better  stable  ab- 
sorbent than  either  whole  or  cut  stalks. 

Corn  stover,  like  straw  of  the  small  grains,  makes  a  valuable 
feed  for  young  stock,  idle  horses,  or  cattle,  that  are  being  car- 
ried over  the  winter,  in  fair  condition  until  spring  time.  The 
Massachusetts  station  found,  as  the  result  of  four  years'  experi- 
ments,25 that  moderately  thin  yearling  steers  lost  only  33  pounds 
per  head  when  wintered  on  whole  cornstalks  alone.  This  feed  will, 
therefore,  furnish  nearly  a  maintenance  ration  for  such  animals. 
In  trials  at  the  Nebraska  station  two-year-old  steers  fed  one-half 
alfalfa  hay  and  one-half  cornstalks  did  nearly  as  well  as  those  fed 
clear  alfalfa  hay,  similar  amounts  of  corn  being  fed  in  both  cases. 
In  one  experiment  lasting  168  days  the  average  gains  made  were 
even  slightly  greater  than  when  alfalfa  was  fed  as  the  sole  rough- 
age.28 Trials  at  the  New  Hampshire  station  -1  show  that  cut  corn 
stover  may  be  considered  a  good  substitute  for  timothy  for  winter 
feeding  of  horses  when  fed  with  concentrates.  Other  experiments 
have  shown  the  value  of  cornstalks  for  feeding  cows  and  sheep.  It 
is  evident,  therefore,  that  cornstalks  are  well  worth  utilizing  for 
feeding  purposes  to  a  far  greater  extent  than  has  heretofore  been  the 
case,  especially  on  farms  in  the  corn  belt.  A  proper  appreciation 
of  the  value  of  cornstalks  and  grain  straw  for  feeding  live  stock 

25  Bulletin  71.          »  Bulletins  90,  93,  100.  »  Bulletin  82. 

9 


130  DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 

would  be  a  powerful  aid  in  the  further  development  of  our  animal 
industry. 

The  straws  of  legumes  and  miscellaneous  grain  crops,  like 
buckwheat,  millet,  etc.,  do  not  differ  greatly  from  the  cereal  straws, 
except  that  the  legume  straws  are  higher  in  protein  and  possess  a 
somewhat  higher  digestibility.  They  are,  however,  rather  coarse 
and  unpalatable,  and  therefore  less  suited  for  the  purpose  of  stock 
feeding  than  grain  straw.  Pea  and  bean  straw,  like  legume  straw 
in  general,  are  much  used  as  a  feed  for  cows  and  sheep,  especially  in 
sections  where  these  crops  are  largely  grown.  They  are  considered 
a  valuable  roughage,  as  they  generally  contain  appreciable  quanti- 
ties of  seeds  and  pods. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  the  different  kinds  of  straw  of  cereals  used  for  feeding  farm  ani- 

mals, and  the  special  value  of  each  one. 

2.  Name  the  different  kinds  of  straw  of  leguminous  crops  used  for  feeding 

purposes,  and  state  their  approximate  value  in  comparison  with    (a) 
cereal  straw,  (6)  timothy  hay,  (c)  corn  fodder. 

3.  To  what  purpose  are  cornstalks  best  put  in  feeding  farm  animals,  and  how 

best  prepared  for  feeding  ? 


CHAPTER  XIV 
ROOTS,  TUBERS,  AND  OTHER  SUCCULENT  FEEDS 

Root  crops  are  grown  for  stock  feeding  to  only  a  relatively 
limited  extent  in  this  country.  There  can  be  no  question  as  to  their 
value  for  this  purpose;  all  agree  that  they  are  highly  nutritious 
feeds  and  greatly  relished  by  farm  animals.  The  main  objection 
to  their  use  is  the  cost  and  the  difficulty  of  growing  them.  It  may 
be  that  this  objection  is,  in  general,  well  founded,  and  that  there 
are  crops  equally  valuable  as  stock  feeds  that  can  be  grown  with 
less  labor  and  expense,  e.g.,  corn  in  the  central  and  eastern  States, 
and  alfalfa  in  the  West,  to  mention  only  those  two  important  forage 
crops.  But  roots  have  a  special  place  to  fill  in  the  feeding  of  live- 
stock. They  have  a  very  beneficial  effect  on  the  health  and  the 
production  of  milch  cows,  ewes,  and  other  farm  animals  and  can 
often  be  produced  in  immense  quantities,  making  it  well  worth 
while  for  stock  farmers  to  look  into  their  culture. 

The  main  reason  why  roots  are  not  grown  more  extensively  in  the 
dairy  sections  of  our  country  and  elsewhere  is  that  corn  silage  is 
now  a  common  feed  on  dairy  and  stock  farms.  Silage  compares 
favorably  with  roots  as  regards  nutritive  effect  and  can,  as  a  rule,  be 
produced  at  less  expense  and  in  larger  yields  of  dry  matter  per  acre. 

Relative  Yields  of  Roots  and  Silage. — A  number  of  experi- 
ment stations  have  furnished  data  for  a  comparison  of  the  yields 
and  the  cost  of  production  of  roots  and  corn  silage ;  in  these  experi- 
ments roots  of  different  kinds  were  raised  for  one  or  more  years 
under  similar  conditions  as  those  for  Indian  corn.  The  following 
table  shows  the  average  yields  per  acre  of  four  kinds  of  root  crops 
and  of  Indian  corn  obtained  in  experiments  at  the  Maine,  Pennsyl- 
vania, Ohio,  and  Ontario  (Guelph)  experiment  stations: 
Comparative  Yields  of  Root  Crops  and  Fodder  Corn. 


Yield  of  root  crops  per  acre 

Yields  of  fodder  corn 
per  acre 

Total 
weight, 
pounds 

Dry 

matter, 
pounds 

Green 
substance, 
pounds 

Dry 

matter, 
pounds 

Rutabagas  

37,240 
35,120 
37,310 
25,300 

4146 
3550 
3470 
4003 

34,200 
30,200 
34,169 
30,200 

5600 
5920 
5608 
5900 

Mangels 

Turnips 

Sugar  beets            .    . 

Averages       .    .    . 

33,740 

3792 

32,190 

5757 

131 


132  DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 

The  figures  in  the  table  show  that  larger  gross  yields  were 
obtained  in  the  case  of  all  roots,  except  sugar  beets,  than  of  corn; 
on  the  average  for  all  four  root  crops,  nearly  17  tons  were  harvested 
per  acre,  against  16  tons  of  fodder  corn.  The  amounts  of  dry 
matter  harvested  in  these  crops  were,  however,  3792  pounds  in 
roots  and  5757  pounds  in  the  corn,  a  difference  of  52  per  cent  in 
favor  of  the  latter  crop.  The  roots  have  a  somewhat  higher  digesti- 
bility than  fodder  corn.  If  we  assume  that  the  dry  matter  in 
the  former  crops  is  87  per  cent  digestible,  on  the  average,  and 
that  of  the  fodder  corn  70  per  cent  digestible,  we  find  that  there  is 
a  difference  of  22  per  cent  in  the  yield  of  digestible  matter  obtained 
per  acre  in  favor  of  the  fodder  corn.  It  is  fair  to  suppose  that  both 
kinds  of  crops  were  grown  under  as  favorable  conditions  as  the 
season  would  permit  in  these  experiments,  and  we  may,  therefore, 
conclude  that  fodder  corn  will  produce,  on  the  average,  about  one- 
half  more  dry  matter  and  over  one-fifth  more  digestible  matter  per 
acre  than  root  crops  under  conditions  similar  to  those  which  pre- 
vailed in  these  experiments. 

While  accurate  information  as  regards  the  cost  of  raising  roots 
and  fodder  corn  is  limited,  it  seems  evident,  from  the  accounts  pub- 
lished by  different  stations,  that  it  will  cost  at  least  twice  as  much 
to  grow,  harvest,  and  store  a  ton  of  roots  as  to  grow  and  put  a  ton 
of  Indian  corn  in  the  silo.  When  calculated  on  a  basis  of  the  cost 
of  total  dry  substance  or  digestible  matter  in  the  two  crops,  the 
comparison,  therefore,  comes  out  still  more  unfavorably  for  root 
crops.  Both  in  point  of  the  actual  yields  secured  and  the  expense 
of  growing,  roots  are,  in  general,  less  desirable  crops  to  raise  than 
Indian  corn  wherever  the  conditions  are  favorable  for  the  culture 
of  the  latter  crop. 

In  view  of  the  facts  stated,  it  is  not  surprising  that  root  crops 
are  grown  to  only  a  relatively  small  extent  for  feeding  purposes  in 
this  country,  and  no  system  of  farm  management  can  be  safely 
advocated  that  would  give  prominence  to  the  growing  of  root  crops 
by  American  farmers  as  a  general  proposition.  There  are,  how- 
ever, conditions  where  it  may  be  advisable  to  grow  roots  to  a  much 
larger  extent  than  is  now  done,  outside  of  the  culture  of  sugar  beets 
for  the  sake  of  sugar  production;  this  is  a  different  proposition 
from  the  growing  of  roots  for  stock  feeding,  and  is  not  considered  in 
the  present  discussion.  The  more  important  ones  of  these  conditions 
are  discussed  in  the  following  paragraphs. 

Value  of  Roots. — Eoot  crops  are  especially  valuable  as  appe- 
tizers, for  exhibition  animals,  and  for  dairy  cows  that  are  being 


ROOTS,  TUBERS,  AND  OTHER  SUCCULENT  FEEDS      133 

fed  heavy  rations  with  a  view  to  securing  a  maximum  production 
of  milk.  For  these  purposes  no  crops  are  equally  valuable  to 
farmers  and  breeders.  Eoots  are  also  grown  to  advantage  where 
Indian  corn  will  not  do  well  on  account  of  climatic  and  other 
conditions.  They  grow  best  in  a  cool  and  moist  climate.  This 
may  be  inferred  from  the  fact  that  they  are  important  crops  in 
European  countries,  especially  Great  Britain,  where  the  growing 
of  turnips  is  a  distinctive  feature  of  farming  and  figures  largely 
in  the  making  of  the  fine  quality  of  mutton  and  beef  produced 
there.  Also  in  Denmark,  a  highly  specialized  dairy  country,  the 
growing  of  roots,  especially  mangels  and  rutabagas,  is  largely 
practised,  and  their  culture  has  increased  in  a  marked  manner 
during  the  present  century,  because  the  dairy  farmers  have  found 
it  advantageous  on  agricultural  and  economic  grounds. 

Eoots  are,  in  general,  characterized  by  a  high  digestibility  and 
palatability.  They  contain  large  proportions  of  water,  as  has  been 
shown,  viz.,  70  to  90  per  cent,  and  only  small  amounts  of  both  fat 
and  fiber.  The  protein  is  also  low,  and  about  40  per  cent  thereof 
is  in  non-albuminoid  form.  The  nitrogen-free  extract,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  relatively  high  and  consists  largely  of  soluble  carbohydrates. 
The  root  crops  are,  therefore,  especially  valuable  sources  of  carbo- 
hydrates. They  are  greatly  relished  by  stock  and  have  a  favorable 
influence  on  their  digestion  and  general  health.  The  only  exception 
is  that  care  is  necessary  in  case  of  feeding  root  crops  (mangels  and 
sugar  beets)  to  breeding  rams  and  perhaps  also  to  ewes  and  cattle, 
on  account  of  the  possibility  of  formation  of  kidney  and  bladder 
stones.  There  is  no  danger  in  this  respect  in  the  case  of  fattening 
animals,  according  to  the  Iowa  station.1 

The  main  root  crops  used  for  feeding  farm  animals  in  this 
country  are  mangels,  rutabagas,  turnips,  sugar  beets,  and  carrots. 
Cabbage,  rape,  and  kale  belong  to  the  same  botanical  genus  as  tur- 
nips and  rutabagas  (brassica),  of  the  mustard  family  (Latin  name, 
cruciferce),  and  parsnips  belong  to  the  carrot  family  (umbelliferce) . 
These  crops  will  now  briefly  be  considered. 

Mangels  are  also  called  mangel-wurzels  or  field  beets  (Beta 
vulgaris,  Fig.  22).  Like  root  crops  in  general,  mangels  have  a 
high  feeding  value  for  the  amount  of  dry  matter  they  contain, 
which  is  less  than  that  of  any  other  root  crop,  viz.,  9  per  cent  on 
the  average.  There  is  considerable  difference  in  different  varieties 
in  this  respect,  the  average  dry  matter  contents  of  these  ranging 
between  6  and  16  per  cent.  The  average  digestion  coefficients  for 

Bulletin  112;  Farmers'  Bulletin  465. 


134  DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 

the  dry  matter  of  mangels  is  87  per  cent,  and  that  of  the  carbo- 
hydrates 95  per  cent.  The  carbohydrates  are  largely  sugar  and 
pectins,  and  make  up  nearly  70  per  cent  of  the  total  dry  matter. 
The  protein  substances  (nitrogen  X  6.25)  consist  of  only  40  per 
cent  of  true  protein  (albuminoids),  the  balance  being  amides  and 
nitric  acids  combined  with  alkalies.  Very  large  yields  of  mangels 
are  grown  on  rich  land  and  with  an  ample  water  supply.  Ontario 
Agricultural  College  reports  a  yield  of  nearly  28  tons  to  the  acre, 
and  Cornell  station  23.6  tons,  the  average  of  five  different  stations 
coming  at  about  20  tons. 

Mangels  grow  considerably  out  of  the  ground  and  are  easily 
pulled  by  hand.    In  the  mild  winter  climate  of  the  southern  States 


FIG.  22. — Half-sugar  mangels.    The  most  desirable  kind  to  grow  for  stock  feeding,  according 

to  Cornell  Station. 

and  California  they  are  generally  left  in  the  field  until  wanted  for 
feeding,  while  in  the  eastern  and  central  States  they  are  stored  in 
root  cellars  in  the  fall  and  kept  cool  and  ventilated.  They  should 
not  be  fed  for  a  few  weeks  after  harvesting,  as  the  freshly-harvested 
mangels  tend  to  scour  stock.  Mangels  furnish  a  good  feed  for  all 
kinds  of  livestock,  except  perhaps  horses.  They  are  usually  run 
through  a  root  cutter  or  pulped  before  feeding.  Danish  feeding 
experiments  have  shown  that  the  dry  matter  of  mangels  has  a 
feeding  value  similar  to  grain  feed,  pound  for  pound,  and  that 
they  may  largely  replace  grain  in  feeding  milch  cows  when  sub- 
stituted in  this  ratio — say  1  part  of  grain  for  10  to  15  parts  of 
roots,  according  to  the  water  content,  or,  on  the  average,  1  to  12l/2 
by  weight.  Danish  dairy  farmers  feed  as  much  as  100  pounds  of 
mangels  per  head  daily  to  their  cows,  and  similar  heavy  root  feed- 


ROOTS,  TUBERS,  AND  OTHER  SUCCULENT  FEEDS        135 

ing  is  also  practised  by  eastern  dairy  farmers  who  are  feeding  their 
cows  for  official  tests  with  a  view  to  securing  a  maximum  milk 
yield.  Half-sugar  mangels  are  recommended  by  the  Cornell  station 
as  the  most  desirable  root  crop  to  grow  for  stock  feeding.2 

Rutabaga  or  Swedish  turnip  (Brassica  campestris,  Fig.  23) 
gives  yields  similar  to  mangels  and,  as  a  rule,  contains  somewhat 
more  dry  matter.  It  is  considered  a  good  sheep  feed  and  also  makes 
an  excellent  winter  feed  for  swine,  especially  for  brood  sows. 
Rutabagas  are  extensively  grown  by  British  and  Canadian  farmers, 
but  less  than  mangels  or  sugar  beets  in  this  country. 


FIG.  23. — Rutabagas  (Bloomsdale) ,  a  good  type  for  stock  feeding.     (Cornell  Station.) 

Kohlrabi  (Brassica  caulorapa)  has  been  developed  for  its 
thickened  stem  instead  of  for  its  leaves  and  root.  Although  not  a 
root  in  the  botanical  sense,  it  may  be  discussed  under  this  heading, 
as  it  serves  the  same  purpose  as  roots  in  stock  feeding.  According 
to  the  Cornell  station,3  kohlrabi  can  be  grown  wherever  rutabagas 
are  grown,  and  will  thrive  under  similar  conditions.  In  the  middle 
West,  where  rutabagas  have  a  tendency  to  run  to  necks  and  form 
little  root,  this  crop  is  a  good  substitute.  The  yields  of  the  two 
crops  appear  to  be  about  the  same;  as  kohlrabi  grows  well  out  of 
the  ground,  it  may  be  readily  pastured  by  sheep,  and  these  animals 
also  relish  greatly  the  leaves  of  the  plant. 

2  Bulletin  317.          3  Bulletin  244. 


136 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 


Turnips  (Brassica  rapa)  are  low  in  dry  matter,  containing  often 
a  smaller  percentage  thereof  than  mangels  (less  than  10  per  cent, 
on  the  average)  ;  the  yields  obtained  are  similar  to  those  of  mangels. 
They  are  especially  valuable  for  sheep  feeding,  and  are  also  some- 
times fed  to  cattle.  When  fed  to  milch  cows  they  impart  a  strong 
turnip  flavor  to  the  milk,  unless  fed  after  milking;  the  same  diffi- 
culty is  likely  to  occur  in  the  case  of  rutabagas  and  other  crops  of 
the  mustard  family  (Cruciferce).  Turnips  do  not  keep  as  well  as 
mangels  or  rutabagas,  and  must  be  fed  out  during  the  fall  or 
early  winter. 

Sugar  beets  (Beta  vulgaris)  are  grown  for  the  manufacture 
of  beet  sugar  in  the  western  States  and  in  Michigan,  Wisconsin, 


FIG.  24. — Carrots  for  stock  feeding   (Improved  Rubicon  and   Danvers  Half-long),   fairly 
easy  to.  harvest  and  capable  of  good  yields.      (Cornell  Station.) 

and  other  central  States,  and  are  of  minor  importance  for  stock 
feeding.  Their  culture  is  more  difficult  and  exacting  than  that 
of  other  root  crops,  and  the  yields  obtained  are  smaller,  viz.,  about 
12  tons,  on  an  average;  owing  to  their  relatively  high  per  cent  of 
dry  matter,  15  to  18  per  cent  (of  which  at  least  four-fifths  is 
sucrose),  they  will,  however,  generally  yield  about  as  much  dry 
matter  per  acre  as  other  root  crops. 

Sugar  beets  are  greatly  relished  by  stock  and  often  fed,  pulped 
or  sliced,  to  milch  cows,  fattening  cattle,  sheep,  and  swine,  espe- 
cially when  these  are  being  fitted  for  exhibitions. 

Carrots  (Daucus  carota,  Fig.  24)  are  considered  particularly 
valuable  as  a  horse  feed,  but  are  also  fed  occasionally  to  cows.  The 


ROOTS,  TUBERS,  AND  OTHER  SUCCULENT  FEEDS    137 

red  or  yellow  varieties  impart  a  rich  color  to  the  milk,  owing  to  the 
coloring  matter  (carotin)  which  they  contain,  and  produce  a  yellow 
cream  and  butter,  making  the  use  of  artificial  coloring  in  butter- 
making  quite  unnecessary.  Stock  carrots  will  yield  10  to  20  tons 
per  acre,  according  to  the  character  of  the  soil,  or  still  more  under 
favorable  conditions.  They  contain,  on  the  average,  about  12  per 
cent  of  dry  matter,  of  which  the  greater  portion  is  sugar  (sucrose 
and  glucose).  They  may  be  used  to  replace  a  portion  of  the  oats 
in  the  ration  of  horses  that  are  hard  worked,  feeding  about  six  to 
eight  pounds  per  head  daily. 

Potatoes  (Solanum  tuberosum)  are  used  extensively  for  stock 
feeding  by  European  farmers,  but  only  to  a  small  extent  in  this 
country.  The  growing  of  this  crop  for  the  purpose  of  furnishing 
feed  for  farm  animals  cannot  be  recommended,  on  account  of  the 
relatively  low  yields  obtained  (average,  200  bushels  at  60  pounds, 
or  six  tons)  and  the  expense  of  production ;  but  on  most  farms  a 
supply  of  cull  potatoes  is  available,  and  in  potato-growing  districts 
large  amounts  of  such  potatoes  may  be  profitably  used  for  feeding 
farm  animals. 

Potatoes  are  primarily  a  fattening  feed  and  are  used  especially 
for  feeding  swine.  They  may  also  be  fed  to  advantage  to  other 
classes  of  stock, — horses,  wethers,  and  milch  cows,  as  a  partial 
substitute  for  grain.  They  are  generally  cooked  for  swine,  and  are 
fed  sliced,  mixed  with  grain  feed,  to  other  classes  of  farm  animals. 

Potatoes  contain  about  20  per  cent  of  dry  matter,  of  which  over 
80  per  cent  is  composed  of  carbohydrates,  largely  starch.  Like  all 
roots  and  tubers,  they  are  low  in  fat ;  the  high  starch  content  places 
them  among  our  foremost  starchy  feeds  and  renders  them  especially 
valuable  for  fattening  purposes.  Danish  feeding  experiments  have 
shown  that  four  pounds  of  boiled  potatoes  are  equal  to  a  pound  of 
mixed  grain  for  feeding  swine,  and  that  for  dairy  cows  it  takes 
six  pounds  of  raw  potatoes  to  equal  a  pound  of  mixed  grain  (1  feed 
unit,  p.  79). 

IJnripe  potatoes  contain  a  poisonous  nitrogenous  compound 
called  solanin,  which  also  accumulates  in  considerable  quantities  in 
the  sprouts;  in  feeding  old  sprouted  potatoes  the  sprouts  must, 
therefore,  be  carefully  removed  to  prevent  accidents. 

During  recent  years  machinery  for  drying  potatoes  has  been 
greatly  perfected  in  Germany,  and  dried  potatoes  in  the  form  of 
flakes  or  chips  are  now  a  regular  article  of  commerce  in  Europe. 
It  takes,  on  the  average,  about  3.8  tons  of  raw  potatoes  to  make 
a  ton  of  dried  potato  flakes.  These  are  pronounced  "  much  cheaper 


138  DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 

than  oats,  and,  pound  for  pound,  as  valuable  as  a  feed  for  horses." 
Experience  from  abroad  suggests  a  fruitful  line  of  experimentation 
for  American  feed  manufacturers  with  this  product,  as  there  can  be 
no  question  but  that  our  potato  industry  can  be  readily  further 
developed,  and  that  it  would  be  of  great  benefit  to  potato  growers  as 
well  as  to  feeders  to  have  cull  or  other  potatoes  made  into  a  feed  of 
unquestioned  merit  which  can  be  kept  indefinitely. 

Miscellaneous  Succulent  Feeds. — A  number  of  miscellaneous 
succulent  feeds  of  minor  importance  for  stock  feeding,  like  cabbage, 
rape,  kale,  pumpkins,  etc.,  may  be  conveniently  considered  at  this 
time. 

Cabbage  (Brassica  oleracea)  is  a  favorite  feed  among  many 
sheep  men,  especially  for  fitting  sheep  for  shows.  It  is  also  occa- 
sionally fed  to  milch  cows  and  laying  hens.  On  account  of  the 
relatively  small  yields  obtained  and  the  expense  of  growing  cab- 
bages, it  will  not  pay  to  use  them  for  stock  feeding,  except  in  the 
case  of  unfavorable  market  conditions,  or  where  the  cost  of  the 
feed  is  not  an  important  factor,  as  in  the  case  of  feeding  for  ex- 
hibition stock  or  preparing  cows  for  official  tests.  As  with  other 
plants  of  the  mustard  family,  cabbages  are  likely  to  taint  the  milk 
when  fed  to  dairy  cows  and  should,  therefore,  be  fed  after  the 
milk  has  been  removed  from  the  stable.  Cabbages  contain,  on  the 
average,  less  than  10  per  cent  solids,  2.6  per  cent  digestible  protein, 
and  G.I  per  cent  digestible  carbohydrates  and  fat,  the  nutritive 
ratio  being  1:2.7.  A  considerable  proportion  (30  per  cent  or 
more)  of  the  protein  is,  however,  present  in  amide  form,  in  this 
as  in  other  green  plants,  making  it  less  valuable  as  a  source  of 
protein  than  is  indicated  by  its  narrow  nutritive  ratio.  Trials  con- 
ducted at  the  Cornell  station  showed  that  on  the  average  for  three 
years  cabbages  yielded  22.5  to  43.8  tons  io  the  acre,  containing 
1.8  to  3.1  tons  of  dry  matter  (average  dry  matter  content,  6.3  to  7.1 
per  cent).4 

Rape  (Brassica  napus)  is  a  valuable  forage  crop,  especially 
adapted  to  a  relatively  cool  and  moist  climate.  It  does  well  in 
northern  United  States  and  Canada,  but  can  also  be  successfully 
grown  further  south  and  in  the  semi-arid  sections  of  the  country, 
either  with  of  without  irrigation.  The  parts  of  the  plant  eaten  by 
stock  are  the  numerous  leaves  and  fleshy  stems.  Rape  is  used 
either  for  pasturage  or  as  a  soiling  crop  for  sheep  and  swine, 
generally  the  former,  while  it  is  cut  and  fed  green  to  cattle.  It 
may  be  sown  broadcast  in  the  early  spring  and  later  at  intervals  of 

4  Bulletin  242. 


ROOTS,  TUBERS,  AND  OTHER  SUCCULENT  FEEDS       139 

two  to  three  weeks.  This  will  secure  a  succession  of  green  feed 
for  summer  and  fall  feeding  that  will  serve  to  make  the  farmer 
independent  of  short  pastures  and  will  keep  the  stock  in  a  vigor- 
ous, thrifty  condition  (Fig.  25).  Eape  is  also  sown  in  drills,  about 
30  inches  apart,  with  the  plants  two  to  three  inches  apart  in  the 
row,  either  with  spring  grain  or  with  corn  just  before  the  last 
cultivation.  This  will  furnish  an  abundance  of  green  forage  for 
fall  feeding.  Rape  may  be  cut  or  pastured  from  eight  to  ten  weeks 
from  the  time  of  seeding,  when  it  will  be  12  to  15  inches  high. 


FIG.  25 — Pigs  on  rape.      This  crop  forms  a  very  valuable  succulent  feed  for  pigs  and  sheep. 

(Wisconsin  Station.) 

The  variety  of  rape  generally  sown  is  Dwarf  Essex,  which  is  a 
biennial.  Nearly  all  the  seed  of  this  variety  on  the  market  is  im- 
ported. The  seed  of  bird-seed  rape,  which  is  an  annual,  is  some- 
times sold  as  Dwarf  Essex,  and  care  should,  therefore,  be  taken  to 
buy  seed  from  reputable  seedsmen  only,  as  the  former  variety  is 
worthless  for  forage  purposes. 

Rape  contains  about  14  per  cent  dry  matter  and  2  per  cent 
digestible  protein,  its  nutritive  ratio  being  about  1 :  4.3.  Both  on 
account  of  its  relatively  high  water  content  and  its  narrow  nutri- 
tive ratio,  it  will  not  give  satisfactory  results  when  fed  alone,  but 
should  be  supplemented  with  grain  feed,  preferably  with  low- 
protein  feeds,  such  as  corn  and  other  cereals,  wheat  middlings,  or 


140  DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 

dried  beet  pulp,  or  with  grass  pasture,  mixed  hay,  cornstalks,  etc. 
Rape  has  proved  an  excellent  feed  for  sheep,  swine,  and  cattle.  At 
the  Ottawa  station  a  bunch  of  22  steers  made  an  average  gain  of 
50  pounds  live  weight  in  three  weeks  on  an  area  of  two  acres;  about 
30  sheep  had  been  allowed  to  pasture  on  a  part  of  this  field  for  ten 
weeks.  The  sheep  also  had  access  to  a  limited  area  of  natural  grass 
pasture.  In  an  experiment  with  pigs,  60  pigs  were  fed  on  an 
acre  and  a  half  of  rape ;  in  addition  to  the  rape  pasture,  about  500 
pounds  of  grain  were  required  for  each  pig  from  weaning  time  to  an 
average  of  185  pounds  weight  in  October  or  November.5 

The  value  of  rape  as  a  forage  plant  has  also  been  established 
by  experiments  at  the  Wisconsin,  Iowa,  Michigan,  and  other  stations. 
At  the  Wisconsin  station  a  gain  of  413.5  pounds  of  mutton  was  ob- 
tained from  9%  tons  of  rape  and  1439.8  pounds  of  grain  (wheat 
and  oats).  The  highest  yield  obtained  from  three  cuttings  at  about 
four  inches  from  the  ground  was  at  the  rate  of  36  tons  of  green 
forage  per  acre.  An  acre  of  rape  was  found  to  have  a  feeding  value 
equivalent  to  2657  pounds  of  grain  fed  to  pigs  four  to  ten  months 
old.  Young  pigs  did  better  when  pastured  on  rape  than  on  clover, 
grain  being  fed  in  both  cases.  Rape  has  an  excellent  effect  on  the 
milk  secretion,  and  therefore  makes  a  valuable  soiling  crop  for 
dairy  cows.  As  in  the  case  of  turnips,  cabbages,  and  other  plants  with 
strong  flavor,  it  should  be  fed  after  milking.  Rape  can  be  used  to 
good  advantage  as  a  part  of  the  ration  for  animals  that  are  being 
fed  in  pens  for  market  or  for  the  show  ring.  It  is  also  a  valuable 
feed  for  young  lambs  and  pigs  at  weaning  time.  Rape  can  stand 
quite  cold  weather,  and  will,  therefore,  last  a  long  time  after  the 
pasture  grasses  succumb  to  frost;  by  the  use  of  this  crop  stock  can  be 
put  into  good  condition  for  the  holiday  markets  or  for  winter,  and 
there  need  be  no  check  in  growth,  fat,  and  milk  production  through 
insufficient  succulent  feed  during  the  late  summer  and  autumn 
months,  as  is  too  frequently  the  case.6 

Kale  (Brassica  oleracea,  var.  Asephala)  belongs  to  the  mustard 
family  and  stands  quite  close  to  the  cabbage  in  composition  and 
feeding  value.  It  is  only  grown  to  a  small  extent  for  forage  purposes 
in  this  country,  the  only  States  where  its  use  appears  to  have  spread 
being  Oregon  and  western  Washington.  On  rich  land,  well  sup- 
plied with  moisture,  it  gives  an  immense  amount  of  nutritious 

6  Ottawa  Bulletin  42. 

6  Farmers'  Bulletin  1G4;  Division  Agrostology,  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture,  Circular  12;  Wisconsin  Report  20,  pp.  46-55  and  281-283. 


ROOTS,  TUBERS,  AND  OTHER  SUCCULENT  FEEDS      141 

green  feed  for  fall  and  early  winter  feeding,  viz.,  30  to  40  tons  or 
more  per  acre.  Under  ordinary  conditions  20  tons  are  probably  an 
average  yield.  All  kinds  of  stock,  including  poultry,  like  kale,  and 
it  is  specially  valuable  as  a  feed  for  milch  cows,  sheep,  and  swine. 
According  to  the  Oregon  station,  35  pounds  of  kale  a  day,  with  20 
pounds  of  hay,  make  an  excellent  ration  for  dairy  cows,  very  little 
grain  feed  being  needed  in  addition.7 

Pumpkins  (Cucurbita  pepo). — The  use  of  pumpkins  in  feed- 
ing stock  is  old  in  this  country,  being  planted  in  the  corn  and  left 
in  the  field  till  "  the  frost  is  on  the  punkin  and  the  fodder's  in  the 
shock!"  The  crop  has  never  assumed  much  importance  as  a  stock 
feed,  however,  and  is  fed,  especially  to  milch  cows  and  swine,  more 
as  an  appetizer  than  for  the  amount  of  nutrients  that  it  supplies. 
It  contains  about  10  per  cent  of  dry  matter,  and  resembles  turnips 
quite  closely  in  composition.  The  Vermont  station8  found  that 
two  and  one-half  tons  of  pumpkins  are  equal  to  one  ton  of  corn 
silage  for  dairy  cows.  They  are  generally  cooked  for  swine  and 
mixed  with  grain  feeds,  but  it  is  a  question  whether  the  cooking 
adds  anything  to  their  value  (p.  67).  The  seeds  are  often  removed 
in  feeding  pumpkins;  some  farmers  believe  that  they  tend  to  dry 
up  cows.  There  is  probably  no  foundation  in  fact  for  this  belief. 
According  to  Grisdale,  pigs  like  the  seeds  best,  and  no  injury  comes 
from  feeding  them.  Henry  states  9  that  the  seeds  contain  much 
nutriment  and  should  not  be  wasted. 

Pie  melons  (also  called  citron  or  cow  melons)  are  grown  for 
feeding  purposes  to  a  limited  extent  in  western  States.  "  Like  the 
ordinary  field  pumpkin,  they  can  be  produced  readily  in  large 
quantities  on  most  lands,  and  ripen  at  a  time  when  green  feed  is 
likely  to  be  scarce.  When  fed  to  dairy  stock  they  produce  an  in- 
creased milk  yield,  which  is  more  than  commensurate  with  their 
actual  content  of  feed  substance.  This  is  because  of  their  palata- 
bility  and  beneficial  effects  upon  digestion  and  the  addition  of 
wholesome  variety  to  the  ration.  They  may  be  fed  with  profit  to 
swine  and  poultry  when  in  confinement,  and  to  sheep,  especially 
during  nursing  periods.10  Pie  melons  contain  5.5  per  cent  dry 
matter  on  the  average,  or  only  about  one-half  as  much  as  field 
pumpkins.  The  relative  feeding  value  of  the  two  crops  is,  in  all 
probability,  represented  by  this  ratio. 

7  Circular  Bulletin  5.         9 "  Feeds  and  Feeding,"  10th  ed.,  p.  195. 

8  Report,  1908.  10  California  Bulletin  132. 


142 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 


Jerusalem  artichokes  (Helianthus  tuberosus). — This  hardy 
perennial  is  grown  for  the  sake  of  its  tubers,  which  resemble  potatoes 
in  composition  and  are  used  as  a  human  food,  and  also  as  a  feed  for 
hogs  and  horses.  The  large  leaves  and  stems,  which  may  be  cut 
off  about  two  feet  from  the  ground  when  the  plants  are  five 
or  six  feet  high,  make  an  excellent  green  feed  for  sheep,  goats, 
young  cattle,  and  even  milch  cows,  according  to  European  authori- 
ties. If  cut  at  this  time,  the  yield  of  tubers  does  not  appear  to  be 
appreciably  affected.11  The  Massachusetts  station12  reports  a  yield 
of  S.2  tons  of  artichoke  tubers  per  acre.  The  tubers  may  be  har- 
vested in  the  same  way  as  potatoes,  or  may  be  rooted  up  by  hogs 
turned  into  the  field.  As  artichokes  can  withstand  severe  periods  of 
drought,  they  may  be  worthy  of  a  trial  by  farmers  in  the  north- 
western States,  but  a  word  of  caution  is  in  order  in  regard  to  this 
as  well  as  other  relatively  unknown  crops ;  their  importance  is  often 
greatly  exaggerated  in  the  agricultural  press. 

Parsnips  (Pastinaca  sativa)  are  grown  for  the  sake  of  their 
thickened  stems  and  roots,  which  are  used  both  as  a  human  food 
and  for  stock  feeding.  They  are  grown  on  the  islands  of  Jersey 
and  Guernsey  as  a  dairy  feed,  but  only  to  a  very  limited  extent 
in  this  country.  The  yield  obtained  is  small,  and  it  is,  moreover, 
difficult  to  harvest  the  crop,  as  the  roots  grow  entirely  in  the  ground. 
Its  use  for  stock  feeding  is,  therefore,  not  likely  to  be  extended 
much  beyond  its  present  confines.  The  following  table  shows  the 
chemical  composition  of  leaves,  stems,  and  tubers  of  artichokes,  of 
parsnips,  and  of  potatoes,  for  the  sake  of  comparison : 

Composition  of  Artichokes  and  Parsnips  Compared  with  Potatoes,  in  Per  Cent 


Dry 

matter 

Protein 

Fat 

Fiber 

Nitrogen- 
free 
extract 

Ash 

Artichokes,  green  leaves 
and  stems 

31.0 

3.2 

.7 

6.0 

18.0 

3.1 

Artichokes,  tubers  
Parsnips       

20.5 
11.7 

2.6 

1.6 

.2 
.2 

.8 
1.0 

15.9 
10.2 

1.0 

.7 

Potatoes  

20.9 

2.1 

.1 

.4 

17.4 

.9 

Chufa  (Cyperus  esculentus)  is  a  southern  perennial  sedge  that  pro- 
duces an  abundance  of  small,  underground  tubers.  The  crop  is  generally  har- 
vested by  hogs  that  are  turned  into  the  field  as  the  tubers  ripen  in  October  or 
November.  Chufas  are  a  noxious  weed  on  low,  damp  places  on  southern 
farms.  They  grow  best  on  light,  sandy  soils,  where  they  give  an  average 

11  Pott,  "  Landw.  Futtermittel,"  part  i,  p.  196. 

12  Report  10. 


ROOTS,  TUBERS,  AND  OTHER  SUCCULENT  FEEDS        143 

yield  of  100  bushels  to  the  acre.  The  Alabama  station 13  showed  as  the  average 
of  two  trials  that  chufa  will  produce  pork  at  the  rate  of  307  pounds  per  acre, 
after  allowance  was  made  for  the  grain  feed  eaten,  while  in  trials  at  the 
Arkansas  station  an  acre  of  chufa  produced  592  pounds,  against  1252 
pounds  from  an  acre  of  peanuts  and  436  pounds  from  an  acre  of  corn.14 

The  sweet  potato  (Ipomcea  batatas)  is  another  southern  crop  that 
grows  as  far  north  as  Illinois,  Kansas,  and  New  Jersey.  Its  greatest  im- 
portance is  as  a  human  food,  but,  in  the  absence  of  good  near-by  markets  and 
proper  transportation  facilities,  it  becomes  of  considerable  value  as  a  feed  for 
stock,  especially  swine,  in  regions  adapted  to  its  culture.  Fed  sliced,  they 
make  a  good  cattle  and  horse  feed.  Pigs  do  their  own  harvesting.  Three 
pounds  of  sweet  potatoes  contain  nearly  as  much  dry  matter,  quite  as  much 
carbohydrates,  and  less  than  one-half  as  much  protein  as  are  generally  con- 
tained in  one  pound  of  Indian  corn.15  By  using  one-half  pound  cotton-seed 
meal,  or  one  pound  cowpeas  for  every  ten  pounds  of  sweet  potatoes,  the  de- 
ficiency in  protein  will  be  fully  covered.  The  Florida  station  1(i  found  that 
sweet  potatoes  can  replace  one-half  of  the  corn  in  rations  for  work  horses, 
the  feeds  being  substituted  in  the  ratio  of  three  to  one.  Trials  with  dairy 
cows  at  the  same  station  indicate  that  100  pounds  of  sweet  potatoes  have  a 
nutritive  effect  similar  to  150  pounds  of  corn  silage.  Sweet  potatoes  con- 
tain, on  the  average,  31.7  per  cent  water,  1.1  per  cent  ash,  1.9  per  cent  pro- 
tein, 26.8  per  cent  carbohydrates,  and  0.7  per  cent  fat.  Their  high  sugar 
and  starch  contents  (4  to  6  per  cent  and  16  to  18  per  cent,  respectively) 
render  them  especially  valuable  as  a  feed  for  fattening  swine. 

Sweet  potato  vines  are  also  utilized  as  a  feed  for  cattle.  They  may  be 
considered  similar  to  cowpea  vines  in  feeding  value,  and  are  better  suited  for 
feeding  green  than  for  curing  into  hay  or  for  silage. 

Sweet  Cassava  (Manihot  aipi) . — This  is  a  sub-tropical  plant  belong- 
ing to  the  milk- weed  family,  which  is  cultivated  for  its  starchy  roots.  These 
are  used  for  the  manufacture  of  starch  and  for  stock  feeding.  Ninety-five 
per  cent  of  the  cassava  grown  in  this  country  is  fed  to  livestock;  all  classes 
of  farm  animals  eat  it  with  a  relish  and  thrive  on  it  better  than  when  con- 
fined to  only  dry  feeding.17  Cassava  is  grown  in  the  Gulf  States  in  this 
country,  and  cannot  be  grown  outside  of  an  area  extending  100  miles  from 
the  coast  of  the  Gulf  States,  and  possibly  South  Carolina.  Five  to  six  tons 
of  roots  per  acre  are  a  fair  crop.  The  following  analysis  shows  the  com- 
position of  cassava  roots : 

66.0  per  cent  moisture,  0.7  per  cent  ash;  1.1  per  cent  protein,  1.8 
per  cent  fiber,  30.2  per  cent  nitrogen-free  extract,  0.2  per  cent  fat; 
nutritive  ratio,  1  :  28.5. 

On  account  of  its  wide  nutritive  ratio  cassava  is  best  supplemented  with 
high-protein  feeds  common  in  the  South,  like  cowpeas,  velvet  beans,  cotton- 
seed meal,  etc.,  in  feeding  growing  animals,  milch  cows,  or  animals  that  are 
being  fattened.  It  furnishes  an  excellent  substitute  for  winter  pasture  as 
well  as  for  the  silo  where  a  farmer  does  not  have  a  sufficient  number  of  ani- 
mals to  make  the  investment  in  a  silo  profitable. 

Apples  and  other  fruits  are  at  times  available  for  stock  feeding 
in  orchard  regions  during  the  summer  and  fall  and  may  be  fed  with 
advantage  to  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  or  horses,  all  of  which  eat  them 

13  Bulletin  122.  10  Bulletin  72. 

"Bulletin  54;  see  also  Farmers'  Bulletin  102.  "Farmers'  Bulletin  167. 
15  Farmers'  Bulletin  26. 


144 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 


with  great  relish.  As  much  as  40  to  50  pounds  of  apples  may  be  fed 
daily  per  head  to  milch  cows  with  good  results.  In  experiments  at 
the  Vermont  station18  apples  were  found  to  have  about  40  per  cent 
of  the  feeding  value  of  corn  silage  when  fed  to  dairy  cows.  They 
make  an  excellent  swine  feed,  if  fed  either  steamed  or  sliced  with 
the  grain  feed,  but  should  always  be  fed  while  fresh,  before  fer- 
mentations set  in.  According  to  the  results  of  trials  at  the  Utah 
station,19  apples  have  a  similar  feeding  value  for  swine  as  grass 
pasture  when  fed  with  skim  milk  and  shorts.  The  preceding  re- 
marks as  to  the  value  of  apples  for  stock  feeding  hold  good  also  for 
other  fruits — windfalls  and  culls  of  pears,  prunes,  figs,  oranges,  etc. 
They  are  especially  adapted  for  fattening  swine,  and  are  quite 
generally  so  used  in  fruit-growing  districts. 

The  chemical  composition  of  the  more  important  fruits  as  given 
by  the  California  station20  are  shown  below: 

Composition  of  Fruits,  Edible  Portion,  in  Per  Cent 


Water 

Ash 

Protein 

Fiber 

Nitrogen- 
free 
extract 

Fat 

Apples 

84.8 

.5 

.4 

1.5 

12.5 

.3 

Oranges  .  .           

88.3 

.4 

.8 

10.5 

10.5 

Pears  

83.9 

.5 

.6 

2.7 

11.5 

.8 

Apricots 

85  1 

5 

10 

13.4* 

13.4* 

Figs 

79  1 

6 

1  5 

18.8* 

18.8* 

7.  »  
Grapes 

80  1 

5 

1  3 

Plums 

78.4 

.5 

1.0 

20.2* 

20.2* 

Watermelons 

90.3 

.8 

1.1 

7.9* 

7.9* 

*  Chiefly  sugar. 

The  main  portion  of  the  nitrogen-free  extract  of  the  fruits  con- 
sists of  different  sugars  (fructose,  dextrose,  and  some  sucrose). 
Organic  acids  (chiefly  malic  acid),  pectin  and  dextrin,  starch  and 
pentosans,  etc.,  are  also  present.  The  nutritive  ratio  of  apples  is 
about  1:44.2;  that  of  apple  pomace  (the  residue  obtained  in  the 
manufacture  of  apple  cider),  1:24.7;  pears,  1:33.7;  oranges, 
1:  10.9;  figs,  1:  16;  watermelons,  1 :  9.7,  etc. 

According  to  Jaffa  and  Anderson,  100  pounds  of  apples  have  a 
feeding  value  equivalent  to  20  pounds  of  alfalfa  hay,  15  pounds  of 
corn  or  barley,  or  18  pounds  of  wheat  bran.21 

18  Report  1901.         "Bulletin  101.         »  Bulletin  132. 

21 A  table  showing  the  comparative  values  of  fresh  and  dried  fruits  and 
hay,  grains,  etc.,  is  published  in  California  Bulletin  132,  p.  52;  see  also 
Woll,  "  Handbook  for  Farmers  and  Dairymen,"  p.  19. 


ROOTS,  TUBERS,  AND  OTHER  SUCCULENT  FEEDS      145 


Range  and  Desert  Plants. — The  common  plants  growing  in 
trie  deserts  and  mountain  ranges  of  western  United  States  are  sage 
brush,  greasewood  and  species  of  salt  bush  (Atriplex).  These  plants 
are  able  to  grow  in  the  regions  mentioned  because  of  their  ability  to 
withstand  extreme  drought  and  a  considerable  amount  of  alkali  in 
the  soil  which  would  kill  other  vegetation.  Sheep  and  other  stock 
are,  however,  able  to  browse  on  these  plants  and  derive  considerable 
nourishment  from  them.  Their  value  for  stock  feeding  is  not  defi- 
nitely known,  as  but  few  chemical  analyses  or  digestion  trials  have 
been  made  with  them,  and  there  are  no  comparative  feeding  trials 
on  record  with  these  plants.  The  Arizona  Experiment  Station  has 
published  analyses  of  salt  bushes  and  greasewood22  which  show 
that  they  contain  high  percentages  of  crude  protein,  fiber,  and  ash, 
with  medium  amounts  of  nitrogen-free  extract  and  fat.  The  fol- 
lowing average  results  were  obtained  in  the  analyses  of  different 
range  forage  crops : 

Composition  of  Air-dry  Range  Forage  Plants,  in" Per  Cent 


Water 

Ash 

Crude 
protein 

Fiber 

Nitrogen- 
free 
extract 

Fat 

No.  of 

samples 

Salt  bush  

6.10 

17.20 

12.89 

24.53 

37.44 

1  78 

4 

Australian  salt  bush 
Greasewood  

6.30 
4.55 

17.90 
14.41 

14.13 
19.81 

20.75 
24.50 

38.81 
34  28 

2.11 
2  45 

1 
1 

Water  grass    .... 

7  60 

11  76 

8  88 

33  62 

36  53 

1  61 

1 

7  17 

9  87 

4  03 

30  90 

46  51 

1  52 

2 

As  in  the  case  of  all  plants  growing  in  arid  regions,  the  per- 
centage of  ash  in  these  forage  plants  is  very  high,  but  the  fiber  con- 
tent is  no  higher  than  in  average  grades  of  hay,  except  in  the  case 
of  the  water  grass.  According  to  the  results  of  the  chemical  analyses 
made,  greasewood  contains  more  protein  and  no  more  fiber  than 
alfalfa  hay  of  good  quality,  but,  in  the  absence  of  digestion  experi- 
ments and  carefully-conducted  feeding  trials,  definite  judgment  can- 
not be  pronounced  as  to  its  nutritive  value.  The  Colorado  station 
found  the  native  and  Australian  salt  bushes  to  have  the  following 
digestion  coefficients,  according  to  the  results  obtained  in  trials  with 
sheep : 23 

Digestion  Coefficients  for  Salt  Bushes,  in  Per  Cent 


Dry 

matter 

Protein 

Fat 

Fiber 

Nitrogen- 
free 
extract 

Fat 

Native  salt  bushes  
Australian  salt  bushes  .  .  . 

46 
60 

66 

85 

52 
24 

8 

27 

49 
64 

72 
60 

22  Report,  1903,  p.  349. 

23  Bulletins  93  and  135. 
10 


146 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 


According  to  Jaffa,24  sheep  and  cattle  have  subsisted  altogether 
on  salt  bushes  through  an  entire  season,  and  sheep  feeders  and  cattle 
men  report  favorably  as  to  their  nutritive  value  when  eaten  in  con- 
nection with  hay  and  grain  feeds. 

Spineless  cacti  (species  of  Opuntia,  Fig.  26)  and  prickly  pears 
are  desert  plants  used  as  a  forage  for  cattle  in  cases  of  emer- 
gencies, and  occasionally  in  a  limited  way  as  a  regular  forage  crop. 
There  are  many  varieties  of  cacti  used  for  this  purpose,  some  with, 
some  without  spines.  The  former  are  generally  singed  with  a  spe- 
cial gasolene  torch  before  being  fed  to  farm  animals,  while  the 
latter  are  fed  directly,  either  whole  or  after  being  run  through  a 


FIG.  26. — Spineless  cactus  yields  large  crops  of  a  very  watery  feed  under  favorable  con- 
ditions; it  is  greatly  relished  by  cattle  and  hogs. 

cutter.  There  is  no  material  difference  in  the  chemical  composition 
of  the  two  kinds  of  cacti.  In  the  case  of  either  kind  the  composition 
of  the  plants  will  vary  according  to  the  parts  analyzed.  The  older, 
somewhat  woody  stems  contain  less  water  than  the  young,  succulent 
joints.  Cattle  appear  to  prefer  the  more  mature  joints,  and  doubt- 
less derive  the  greater  amount  of  nutriment  from  these.  Spineless 
cacti  will  contain  75  to  92  per  cent  of  water  (average  about  85  per 
cent),  about  0.9  per  cent  protein,  2.6  per  cent  fiber,  14.7  per  cent 
nitrogen-free  extract,  0.4  per  cent  fat,  and  4.2  per  cent  ash.  As 
might  be  expected,  the  ash  content  and  the  nitrogen-free  extract 
are  very  high,  while  protein  is  relatively  low;  it  is,  therefore,  a 
starchy  feed  and  has  a  very  wide  nutritive  ratio. 

24  California  Bulletin  132. 


ROOTS,  TUBERS,  AND  OTHER  SUCCULENT  FEEDS   147 

The  spineless  cacti  have  been  considerably  exploited  in  the  south- 
western States  and  California  during  recent  years  as  a  feed  for 
farm  animals,  and  extravagant  claims  are  often  made  as  regards 
the  yields  obtained  and  the  nutritive  value  of  the  plants.  The 
yields  have  been  calculated  on  the  basis  of  the  weight  of  slabs  from 
a  single  young  plant,  or  perhaps  a  small  field  during  a  single  sea- 
son, and  enormous  figures,  as  high  as  1000  tons  per  acre,  have  been 
claimed  as  a  result.  As  against  these  figures  we  have  accurate 
information  as  to  the  yields  secured  at  the  Arizona  station  and  at 
Chico,  Cal.,  where  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
has  conducted  experiments  with  this  plant  for  a  number  of  years 
past.  The  results  obtained  at  the  latter  place  show  an  average 
annual  yield  between  20  and  25  tons  to  the  acre.  This  is  with 
expert  cultivation  and  maintenance  of  a  perfect  stand.  "  The 
plantation  has  been  carefully  cultivated,  all  weeds  have  been  kept 
down  during  the  growing  season,  and  a  good  tilth  has  been  main- 
tained during  the  summer.  Once  or  twice  a  year  the  whole  planta- 
tion has  been  gone  over,  and  missing  plants  replaced." 

Cactus  is  well  liked  by  most  farm  animals,  and  is  especially 
adapted  for  feeding  cattle  and  swine.  Instances  are  on  record  of 
dairy  cows  eating  100  to  150  pounds  of  cacti  a  day  per  head,  for 
months  at  a  time,  receiving  no  dry  feed  in  addition,  but  on  account 
of  the  laxative  effect  of  the  plant,  and  on  general  principles,  the 
better  practice  is  to  feed  either  dry  roughage  or  grain  feed,  or 
both,  in  connection  with  it,  whether  the  animals  fed  be  fattening 
steers,  milch  cows,  or  swine.  According  to  Griffiths,  6  pounds  of 
green  prickly  pears,  when  singed,  have  a  feeding  value  similar  to 
a  pound  of  dry  sorghum  hay  when  fed  to  dairy  cattle.25  A  carload 
of  range  steers  fed  96  pounds  of  singed  prickly  pears  and  4.3 
pounds  of  cotton-seed  meal  per  head  daily  for  a  period  of  104  days 
gained  1.75  pounds  daily  per  head  on  this  feed;  it  required,  there- 
fore, 55  pounds  of  pears  and  2.5  pounds  of  cotton-seed  meal  per 
pound  of  gain,  at  a  cost  of  about  3y2  cents  per  day  for  feed. 

References. — The  following  Department  of  Agriculture  or  experiment 
station  publications  have  been  issued  during  late  years  on  the  subject  of 
prickly  pears  and  spineless  cacti:  "  Singed  Cacti  as  a  Forage,"  Arizona 
Bulletin  51  (Timely  Hints  No.  52),  May,  1904.  "The  Prickly  Pear  and 
Other  Cacti  as  Feeds  for  Stock,"  Griffiths,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry, 
Bulletin  74,  1905.  "  Feeding  Prickly  Pears  to  Stock  in  Texas,"  Griffiths, 
U.  S.  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Bulletin  91,  1906.  "  Prickly  Pear  and 
Other  Cacti  as  Food  for  Stock,"  Griffiths  and  Hare,  New  Mexico  station, 
Bulletin  60,  1906.  "  The  Prickly  Pear  as  a  Farm  Crop,"  Griffiths,  Bureau  of 

23  Bureau  Animal  Industry,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bulletin  91. 


148  DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 

Plant  Industry,  Bulletin  124,  1908.  "  Experiments  on  the  Digestibility  of 
Prickly  Pear  by  Cattle,"  Hare,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Bulletin 
106,  1908.  "  Spineless  Prickly  Pears,"  Griffiths,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry, 
Bulletin  140,  1909.  "  Native  Cacti  as  Emergency  Forage  Plants,"  Thornber 
and  Vinson,  Arizona  Bulletin  07,  1911.  "The  Thornless  Prickly  Pears," 
Griffiths,  U.  S.  Farmers'  Bulletin  483,  1913.  "Behavior  under  Cultural 
Conditions  of  Species  of  Cacti  Known  as  Opuntia,"  Griffiths,  U.  S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  Bulletin  31,  1913. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  root  crops  are  commonly  used  for  stock  feeding  in  this  country? 

2.  Give  the  characteristic  points  in  favor  of  the  six  most  important  root 

crops. 

3.  What  is  the  relative  value  of  roots  and  silage  to  the  stock  farmer  ? 

4.  Name  the  farm  animals  to  which  potatoes  may  be  fed,  and  method  of 

feeding  these. 

5.  Describe  briefly  the  value  for  feeding  farm  stock  the  following  crops: 

Cabbage,  rape,  pumpkins,  and  sweet  potatoes. 

6.  What  is  the  general  value  of  fruits  for  feeding  farm  stock? 

7.  Name  some  of  the  main  range  and  desert  plants  and  discuss  briefly  their 

value  for  stock  feeding. 


CHAPTER  X.V 
SILOS  AND  SILAGE 

A  silo  is  an  air-tight  structure  used  for  the  preservation  of 
forage  crops  in  a  succulent  condition  (Fig.  27).  The  green  forage 
placed  in  the  silo  undergoes  certain  changes,  through  fermentation 
processes  and  respiration  of  the  plant  cells.  The  resulting  feed  is 
known  as  silage  (formerly  ensilage). 

While  the  history  of  the  silo  dates  back  to  antiquity,  it  is  only 
during  relatively  recent  years  that  special  silo  structures  have  been 


FIG.  27.— Stave  silos.     Dimensions,  12  fee 


diameter,  36  feet  high,  capacity  84  tons. 


built  in  this  country.  The  introduction  of  the  silo  on  American 
farms  may  be  said  to  date  from  the  latter  part  of  the  eighties.  The 
silo  was  first  introduced  into  the  dairy  sections  of  the  eastern  and 
central  States,  the  silage  being  made  from  Indian  corn  and  used 
largely  for  feeding  dairy  cows.  Gradually,  however,  the  silo  has 
spread  to  all  kinds  of  stock  farms,  especially  in  the  corn  belt,  and 
it  is  now  a  part  of  the  permanent  equipment  on  nearly  all  such  farms 
where  modern  methods  of  management  prevail. 

Silo  Types. — The  various  steps  in  the  evolution  of  silo  buildings 
are  as  follows:  First,  a  pit  or  trench  dug  in  the  ground;  second, 
a  square  or  rectangular,  relatively  shallow  stone  or  wooden  structure ; 

149 


150 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 


third,  modern  round  silos.  Silos  of  the  first  kind  are  still  met  with 
in  beet-growing  districts,  where  the  wet  pulp  from  the  beet-sugar 
factories  is  cured  or  siloed  in  trenches  near  the  factories,  or  in 
shallow  silos  built  up  with  board  walls.  Silos  of  the  second  type 
are  no  more  built  or  used,  so  far  as  is  known. 

The  first  silo  of  the  third  type  was  built  at  Wisconsin  Experi- 
ment Station,  in  1891,  by  the  late  Professor  T.  H.  King,  who 
strongly  urged  the  building  of  these  silos  in  preference  to  other 
silo  types.  This  original  round  silo  had  a  diameter  of  16  feet  and 
was  27  feet  high  (capacit}r,  about  90  tons  of  green  corn).  Since 
the  construction  of  this  silo  the  tall,  round  silo  has  become  well- 
nigh  universal  in  this  country.  While  the  materials  used  and  the 
dimensions  have  varied  considerably,  the  principle  of  construction 
of  practically  all  silos  built  since  the  early  part  of  the  century  has 
been  that  first  worked  out  and  described  by  Professor  King.1  Mod- 
ern silos  are  built  a  great  deal  taller  than  was  previously  the  case, 
the  silos  built  during  the  last  decade  or  two  being  30  to  40  feet  high 
or  more,  with  a  diameter  varying  from  12  to  24  feet,  according  to 
the  capacity  wanted.  It  is  not  recommended  to  build  silos  of  larger 
diameter  than  20  feet,  as  it  is  difficult  to  feed  out  the  silage  from 
such  silos  rapidly  enough  to  prevent  considerable  loss  through 
decay  of  the  surface  layer,  except  in  cases  of  very  large  herds.  The 
following  table  shows  the  relation  between  the  size  and  capacity 
of  different  silos  of  a  diameter  from  10  to  26  feet  and  a  height  of 
20  to  40  feet: 

Approximate  Capacity  of  Cylindrical  Silos  for  Well-matured  Corn  Silage, 
in  Tons  (King) 


Depth 
of  silo, 
feet 

Inside  diameter  of  silo,  feet 

10 

12 

14 

15 

16 

18 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

20 

26 

38 

51 

59 

67 

85 

105 

115 

127 

138 

151 

163 

177 

21 

28 

40 

55 

63 

72 

91 

112 

123 

135 

148 

161 

175 

189 

22 

30 

43 

59 

67 

77 

97 

120 

132 

145 

158 

172 

187 

202 

23 

32 

46 

62 

72 

82 

103 

128 

141 

154 

169 

184 

199 

216 

24 

34 

49 

66 

76 

87 

110 

135 

149 

164 

179 

195 

212 

229 

25 

36 

52 

70 

81 

90 

116 

143 

158 

173 

190 

206 

224 

242 

26 

38 

55 

74 

85 

97 

123 

152 

168 

184 

201 

219 

237 

257 

27 

40 

58 

78 

90 

103 

130 

160 

177 

194 

212 

231 

251 

271 

28 

42 

61 

83 

95 

108 

137 

169 

186 

204 

223 

243 

264 

285 

29 

45 

64 

88 

100 

114 

144 

178 

196 

215 

235 

265 

278 

300 

30 

47 

68 

93 

105 

119 

151 

187 

206 

226 

247 

269 

292 

315 

31 

49 

70 

96 

110 

125 

158 

195 

215 

236 

258 

282 

305 

330 

32 

51 

73 

101 

115 

131 

166 

205 

226 

248 

271 

295 

320 

346 

36 

64 

105 

130 

139 

155 

190 

235 

40 

75 

121 

150 

165 

180 

228 

279 

1  Wisconsin  Bulletin  28;  Report  10,  p.  201. 


SILOS  AND  SILAGE  151 

The  figures  for  the  capacity  of  silos  given  in  the  table  refer  to 
Indian  corn  cut  when  nearly  mature.  Somewhat  larger  quantities 
can  be  put  in  of  immature  corn  or  sorghum,,  and  less  of  dry  corn, 
alfalfa,  grain  sorghums,  and  similar  crops  that  do  not  pack  well. 
If  cut  when  nearly  ripe,  the  grain  sorghums  will  occupy  at  least 
one-third  more  space  than  Indian  corn  cut  at  the  usual  time,  and  the 
capacity  of  a  silo  for  these  crops  would  then  be  decreased  in  this 
ratio  from  the  figures  given  in  the  table. 

Important  Points  in  Building  Silos. — The  following  points 
should  be  kept  in  mind  in  building  silos: 

1.  The  silo  must  be  air-tight.    The.  process  of  silage  making  is 
largely  a  series  of  fermentation  processes.     Bacteria  pass  into  the 
silo  with  the  green  fodder  and  after  a  short  time  begin  to  multiply 
there,  favored  by  the  presence  of  air  and  an  abundance  of  feed 
materials  in  the  fodder,  especially  soluble  carbohydrates.     As  a 
result  of  this  action,  as  well  as  of  the  respiration  of  the  plant  cells, 
carbon-dioxide  and  heat  are  evolved.    The  more  air  at  the  disposal 
of  the  bacteria,  the  further  the  fermentations  will  progress,  and  the 
greater  will  be  the  losses  of  feed  materials.     If  a  supply  of  air  is 
admitted  to  the  silo  from  the.  outside,  the  bacteria  will  have  a 
chance  to  continue  to  grow,  and  more  fodder  will,  therefore,  be 
wasted.    If  no  further  supply  of  air  is  at  hand,  except  what  remains 
in  the  air  spaces  between  the  siloed  fodder,  the  bacteria  will  gradu- 
ally die  out,  or  only  such  forms  will  survive  as  are  able  to  grow  in 
the  absence  of  air.    The  changes  occurring  in  siloed  fodder  are  also 
due  in  part  to  intramolecular  respiration  in  the  plant  tissues,  which 
continues  until  the  cells  are  killed.    When  there  is  available  oxygen 
in  contact  with  the  plant  cells,  these  will  live  longer  and  the  loss  of 
plant  materials  will  be  greater  than  when  only  a  smaller  supply  of 
air  (oxygen)  remains  in  the  air  spaces  in  the  siloed  mass. 

2.  The  silo  must  l)e  deep.    Depth  in  the  silo  is  essential  in  mak- 
ing silage  so  as  to  have  the  siloed  mass  under  great  pressure ;  this 
will  cause  it  to  pack  well  and  will  leave  as  little  air  as  possible  in 
the  interstices  between  the  cut  fodder,  thus  reducing  the  loss  of  feed 
materials  to  a  minimum. 

The  early  silos  built  in  this  country  or  abroad  were  shallow 
structures,  often  not  over  12  to  15  feet  deep,  and  no  longer  than  they 
were  deep.  Experience  showed  that  it  was  necessary  to  weight  heavily 
the  fodder  placed  in  these  silos  in  order  to  avoid  a  large  amount  of 
moldy  silage.  In  modern  silos  no  weighting  is  necessary,  since  the 
material  placed  in  the  silo,  on  account  of  the  great  depth,  is  suffi- 


152 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 


ciently  heavy  to  largely  exclude  the  air  in  the  siloed  fodder  and 
thus  secure  a  good  quality  of  silage.  In  case  of  deep  silos  the  loss 
from  spoiled  silage  on  the  top  is  smaller  in  proportion  to  the  amount 
of  silage  stored,  and  a  smaller  loss  occurs  while  the  silage  is  being 
fed  out.  As  the  silage  packs  better  in  a  deep  silo  than  in  a  shallow 

one,  the  former  kind  of  silos 
will  hold  more  silage  per  cubic 
foot  than  the  latter  (Fig.  28). 
3.  The  silo  must  have 
smooth,  perpendicular  walls, 
which  will  allow  the  fodder  to 
settle  without  forming  cavities 
along  the  walls.  In  a  deep  silo 
the  fodder  will  settle  several 
feet  during  the  first  few  days 
after  filling.  Any  unevenness 
in  the  wall  will  prevent  the 
mass  from  settling  uniformly, 
and  air  spaces  thus  formed  will 
cause  the  surrounding  silage 
to  spoil. 

The  walls  of  the  silo  must 
be  made  rigid  and  very  strong, 
so  as  not  to  spring  when  the 
siloed  mass  settles.  The  lateral 
(outward)  pressure  of  cut  corn 
when  settling  at  the  time  of 
filling  is  considerable,  and  in- 
creases with  the  depth  of  the 
silage,  at  the  rate  of  about 
eleven  pounds  per  square  foot 
for  every  foot  in  depth  of  sil- 
age. At  a  depth  of  20  feet 
there  is,  therefore,  an  outward 
pressure  of  220  pounds  per  square  foot;  at  30  feet,  a  pressure  of  33'0 
pounds.  It  is  because  of  this  great  pressure  that  it  was  difficult  to 
make  large,  rectangular  silos  deep  enough  to  be  economical,  since 
the  walls  of  rectangular  silos  always  spring  more  or  less  under  the 
pressure  of  the  silage,  and  this  seldom  kept  as  well  in  them  as  it 
does  in  those  whose  walls  cannot  spring.  In  the  round  wooden  silos 
every  board  acts  as  a  hoop,  and,  as  the  wood  does  not  stretch  much 
lengthwise,  there  is  but  little  danger  of  spreading  of  such  walls;  it 


FIG.  28. — A  good  concrete  silo  costs  more 
than  a  wooden  silo,  but  will  last  indefinitely 
when  properly  cared  for,  and  needs  no  atten- 
tion beyond  an  application  of  a  coat  of  pure 
cement  wash  every  two  or  three  years.  (Wis- 
consin Station.) 


SILOS  AND  SILAGE 


153 


is  on  account  of  this  fact  and  because  of  the  economy  of  construc- 
tion that  only  round  silos  are  now  built. 

After  the  silage  has  once  settled  there  is  no  lateral  pressure  in 
the  silo ;  cases  are  on  record  where  a  filled  silo  has  burned  down  to 
the  ground  with  the  silage  remaining  practically  intact  as  a  tall 
stack. 

Silo  Structures. — It  does  not  lie  within  the  scope  of  this  book 
to  discuss  different  methods  of  silo  construction;  suffice  it  to  say 
that  there  are  four  or  five  different  kinds  of  materials  now  used  in 
the  building  of  silos:  Wooden  silos  (either  stave,  so-called  re-saw, 
plastered),  cement  (solid  or  block),  brick,  stone,  glazed  tile,  and 
steel.  A  satisfactory  and  more  or  less  permanent  silo  can  be  built 
of  any  one  of  these  materials,  provided  due  care  is  taken  in  the 
construction.  The  cost  of  different  kinds  of  silos  will  vary  greatly 


m 


FIG.  29. — A  California  dairy  barn,  with  concrete  silos,  accommodating  four  rows  of  cows, 
with  a  driveway  in  the  middle. 

in  different  sections,  according  to  the  relative  prices  of  lumber, 
cement,  brick,  etc.  A  number  of  different  experiment  stations  have 
published  bulletins  on  silo  construction  which  describe  the  silo 
materials  best  adapted  to  the  conditions  in  the  respective  States, 
and  these  may  profitably  be  consulted  before  a  silo  is  built.  Silos 
built  by  farmers  living  in  the  same  localities  may  also  be  examined, 
and  advantage  thus  taken  of  the  experience  of  others  (Fig.  29). 

Advantages  of  Silos. — There  are  several  reasons  for  the  rapid 
increase  of  silos  on  American  farms  during  the  past  few  decades; 
the  most  important  ones  are  given  below. 

1.  Generally  speaking,  the  silo  enables  the  farmer  to  secure 
the  largest  possible  amounts  of  feed  materials  in  the  corn  crop  for 
feeding  farm  animals  in  the  most  convenient  and  cheapest  manner. 

2.  Corn  silage  furnishes  a  uniform  succulent  feed  during  the 
winter  and  spring,  which  is  greatly  relished  by  all  classes  of  farm 


154 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 


animals  and  especially  adapted  for  feeding  dairy  cows  and  beef 
cattle. 

3.  The  silo  will  preserve  feeds  like  corn,  sorghum,  clover,  alfalfa, 
pea  vines,  etc.,  in  a  succulent  condition  for  feeding  any  time  during 
the  year,  and  thus  furnishes  valuable  supplementary  feeds  for  late 
summer  and  early  fall  feeding  when  pastures  are  likely  to  be  short. 

4.  The  silo  makes  the  farmer  less  dependent  on  weather  condi- 
tions than  when  hay  is  made,  and  enables  him  to  get  along  with 
smaller  barns  than  otherwise,  since  less  room  is  required  for  storing 
feed  in  a  silo  than  in  the  form  of  hay  in  a  barn.2 


FIG.  30. — A  "re-saw"  silo  being  filled  with  alfalfa.     These  silos  are  well  adapted  to  mild 
climates,  as  that  of  California  and  the  southern  States.     (Pacific  Rural  Press.) 

The  value  of  the  silo  on  American  stock  farms,  and  especially 
to  dairy  farmers  and  cattle  men,  has  been  fully  established  during 
the  past  few  decades  by  numerous  carefully-conducted  feeding 
experiments  with  different  classes  of  farm  animals,  as  well  as  by 
practical  feeding  experience.  The  present  general  distribution  of 
the  silo  in  this  country  has  been  the  most  important  factor  in  the 

2  The  advantages  of  silos  are  discussed  more  fully  in  the  author's  "  Book 
on  Silage"  (Chicago,  1900;  now  out  of  print)  and  in  "Modern  Silage 
Methods,"  published  by  Silver  Manufacturing  Company,  Salem,  Ohio,  both 
of  which  books  have  been  freely  used  in  the  preparation  of  this  chapter. 


SILOS  AND  SILAGE 


155 


development  of  our  livestock  industry  that  has  come  since  the 
introduction  of  modern  agricultural  machinery  (Figs.  30  and  31). 
The  silo  is  most  economical  where  the  number  of  stock  kept  is 
sufficiently  large  to  consume  at  least  100  tons  of  silage  during  the 
season.  The  investment  in  a  silo  and  necessary  machinery  is  rela- 
tively high  for  smaller  silos,  and  the  cost  of  storing  and  loss  of  silage 
through  spoiling  relatively  larger  than  with  large  silos.  The  silo 
belongs  with  intensive  farming,  where  the  greatest  profit  results 
from  keeping  as  large  a  number  of  livestock  as  possible  on  a  given 
acreage.3  For  small  herds  of,  say,  12  head  of  cattle  or  less,  the 
growing  of  roots  where  the  land  is  suited  to  these  crops  may  prove 
a  more  economical  crop  than  silage  for  supplying  succulence  in  the 
rations  fed. 


FIG.  31. — Battery  of  four  cement  silos  on  a  California  cattle  ranch.     Dimensions  20  feet  in 
diameter,  and  46  feet  high,  capacity  about  350  tons  each.     (Pacific  Rural  Press) 

SILAGE  CROPS. — Indian  corn  is  preeminently  the  great 
American  silage  crop  and  is,  in  general,  better  adapted  for  siloing 
purposes  than  any  other  agricultural  crop.  The  reason  for  this  is 
easily  seen :  The  thick  stems  and  broad  leaves  of  ,the  corn  plant, 
when  cut,  pack  well  in  the  silo;  corn  is  rich  in  starch  and  other 
non-saccharine  carbohydrates,  which  insures  silage  of  a  moderate 
acidity,  and  it  is  relatively  low  in  protein  substances,  so  that  the 
danger  of  undesirable  fermentations  in  the  silo  is  removed.  The 
acids  normally  present  in  corn  silage  are  lactic  and  acetic.  Lactic 

'Bureau  of  Statistics,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bulletin  73, 
p.  37. 


156  DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 

acid  is  non-volatile  and  makes  up  about  two-thirds  of  the  acidity  of 
silage  made  from  nearly  matured  corn,  or  about  1  per  cent  on  the 
average,  while  acetic  acid  is  present  in  from  0.2  to  0.5  per  cent  on 
the  average.  This  and  related  acids  give  to  well-preserved  silage 
its  pleasantly  acidulated,  aromatic  odor,  and  make  corn  silage 
particularly  palatable  to  farm  animals. 

Corn  is  planted  thicker  when  grown  for  silage  than  for  grain 
(p.  106).  The  closeness  of  planting  varies  in  different  regions, 
according  to  soil  and  climate.  The  common  practice  is  to  plant 
the  corn  in  hills,  three  and  a  half  feet  apart  both  ways,  for  grain, 
and  in  drills,  three  and  a  half  feet  apart,  with  stalks  eight  to  ten 
inches  apart  in  the  row  for  silage.  This  will  secure  a  fair  propor- 
tion of  ears  and  a  maximum  yield  of  dry  matter  in  the  crop  taken 
off  the  land  (p.  105).  Experiments  conducted  with  regard  to  the 
effect  of  methods  of  planting  corn  have  shown  that  the  yields  ob- 
tained are  not  influenced  materially  by  the  distribution  of  the  seed 
so  long  as  the  amount  of  seed  per  acre  remains  the  same.4  T.he 
question  of  planting  corn  in  hills  or  drills  may,  therefore,  be  decided 
on  the  score  of  convenience  of  cultivating  the  field  and  handling 
the  crop. 

Corn  for  the  Silo. — Experience  and  direct  trials  have  proved 
that  it  is  best  to  plant  a  variety  of  corn  for  silage  that  will  mature 
in  the  locality  given,  and  to  grow  a  maximum  amount  of  dry  matter 
to  the  acre,  which  will  mean  that  the  yield  of  perfect  ears  will  -be 
smaller  than  when  grown  for  grain.  As  the  quality  of  the  silage 
made  from  well-matured  corn  is  better  than  that  made  from  rather 
immature  grain,  the  best  practice  is  to  allow  the  grain  to  nearly 
ripen  before  it  is  cut  for  the  silo.  This  is  advantageous  also  because 
of  the  rapid  increase  in  the  yield  of  dry  matter  per  acre  during  the 
last  stages  of  the  growing  period  when  the  kernels  begin  to  harden 
(p.  55).  If  the  grain  is  fully  matured  by  the  time  the  silo  can  be 
filled,  a  quantity  of  water  added  to  the  mass  in  the  silo  or  in  the 
blower  as  the  corn  goes  into  the  silo  will  secure  a  good  quality  of 
silage.  Frosted  corn  can  likewise  be  made  into  good  silage  by  a 
liberal  application  of  water  in  the  same  way. 

The  amount  of  silage  that  can  be  obtained  from  an  acre  of 
corn  will  vary  with  the  fertility  of  the  land,  the  season,  and  the  care 
used  in  growing  the  crop,  from  6  tons  or  below  to  over  20  tons  in 
exceptional  cases.  A  50-bushel  crop  will  yield  about  8  to  12  tons 
of  silage  per  acre,  depending  upon  the  amounts  of  foliage  and 
stalks  that  accompany  the  ear.  Southern  varieties  of  corn,  as  a 

4  Illinois  Bulletin  31,  Connecticut  Report,  1890. 


SILOS  AND  SILAGE  157 

rule,  carry  a  larger  proportion  of  the  plant  in  the  form  of  stalks 
and  leaves  than  do  northern-grown  varieties.5 

The  general  practice  adopted  by  farmers  in  the  corn  belt  is  to 
silo  the  corn,  "  ears  and  all."  The  entire  crop  is  run  through  a 
cutter  and  filled  into  the  silo,  where  it  is  evenly  mixed  and  tramped 
down  carefully,  especially  along  the  walls  of  the  silo.  Experiments 
conducted  by  the  author  at  the  Wisconsin  station6  and  by  Hills  at 
Vermont  station7  showed  conclusively  that  this  method  of  handling 
the  crop  is  more  economical  and  convenient  than  to  husk,  shell, 
and  grind  the  corn  separately  and  feed  it  to  dairy  cows,  with  silage 
made  from  corn  fodder  or  stover.  According  to  the  results  obtained 
in  the  Vermont  trials,  one  acre  of  corn  silage  made  from  the  whole 
corn  plant,  including  ears,  is  equal  in  feeding  value  to  one  and  one- 
quarter  acres  of  silage  made  from  corn  stover  fed  with  the  corre- 
sponding amount  of  ground  grain. 

The  fact  that  corn  silage  is  relatively  low  in  protein  has  led  to 
the  suggestion  that  leguminous  crops  be  placed  in  the  silo  with  the 
corn.  The  most  successful  crops  for  this  purpose  are  cowpeas  or 
soybeans  grown  in  the  corn,  both  being  cut  for  the  silo  at  the  same 
time.  Cowpeas  mature  at  about  the  same  time  as  corn  in  the 
South,  and  furnish  large  yields  of  feed;  they  make  a  valuable 
mixed  silage  for  southern  stock  farms.  Soybeans  may  be  success- 
fully used  for  the  same  purpose  and  can  be  grown  farther  north; 
grown  together  with  Indian  corn,  they  make  a  good  quality  of 
silage  that  is  considerably  richer  in  protein  than  corn  silage  alone 
(p.  340). 

Sorghum  has  been  highly  recommended  as  a  silage  crop  by  the 
Kansas  and  Tennessee  experiment  stations  on  account  of  its  being 
more  drought-resistant  than  Indian  corn.  It  will  give  heavier 
yields  than  this  crop  in  regions  where  the  rainfall  is  too  light  or  too 
irregular  for  growing  a  good  crop  of  corn.  The  sorghums  are  less 
liable  to  damage  by  insects  than  corn,  and  remain  green  far  into 
the  fall,  so  that  the  work  of  filling  the  silo  may  be  carried  on  long 
after  the  corn  is  ripe  and  the  leaves  all  dried  up.  Yields  of  green 
sorghum  of  20  tons  per  acre  are  reported  from  Kansas,  or  one-half 
as  much  again  as  a  good  crop  of  corn.  It  is  important,  in  making 
silage  from  sorghum,  that  it  be  harvested  late,  when  the  seed  has 
become  hard,  as  it  will  make  a  very  acid  silage  if  cut  at  an  earlier 
stage  of  growth.  Cut  at  harvest  time,  it  will  make  a  good  quality 

5  Farmers'  Bulletin  578. 

6  Reports  1891  and  1892. 

7  Report  1892. 


158  DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 

of  silage,  of  nearly  similar  feeding  value  and  palatability  to  corn 
silage. 

The  grain  sorghums  (Egyptian  corn,  kafir,  milo  maize,  feterita, 
etc.)  are  used  for  silage  to  a  limited  extent  in  the  western  States. 
They  make  a  good  silage  if  cut  when  the  seed  is  ripe;  this  is  not 
relished  quite  as  well  as  corn  silage,  and  is  eaten  in  smaller  amounts 
than  this,  e.g.,  by  dairy  cows  20  to  25  pounds  per  head  daily  as  a 
maximum  feed.  The  Kansas  station  found  that  kafir  silage  ranks 
second  to  corn  silage  as  a  feed  for  dairy  cows,  and  that  it  is  better 
than  sorghum  silage  for  production  of  milk.8 

In  dry,  hot  sections,  where  the  grain  sorghums  give  relatively 
large  yields  and  where  Indian  corn  cannot  be  successfully  grown, 
these  crops  will  doubtless  assume  great  importance  in  the  future 
as  silage  crops  on  dairy  and  other  stock  farms. 

Alfalfa  is  used  only  to  a  limited  extent  as  a  silage  crop.  There 
is  ordinarily  no  difficulty  in  making  it  into  good  hay  in  the  western 
States  where  this  crop  grows  to  best  advantage  and  is  of  the 
greatest  economic  importance.  It  is,  however,  made  into  silage  by 
many  farmers;  if  run  through  a  cutter  and  siloed  immediately 
after  mowing,  before  it  has  wilted  much,  and  carefully  tramped 
down  in  the  silo,  it  will  make  good  aromatic  silage  that  is  palatable 
to  dairy  cows,  steers,  sheep,  and  other  farm  animals  after  they  have 
become  accustomed  to  it.  Like  all  silage  made  from  legumes,  it 
has  sometimes  a  stronger  and  less  agreeable  flavor  than  corn  silage, 
owing  to  the  butyric  acid  formed  therein,  but  stock  soon  learn  to 
like  it.  It  has  not  been  shown,  however,  that  alfalfa  silage  has  a 
higher  feeding  value  than  corn  silage,  ton  for  ton,  although  it  is 
considerably  richer-  in  protein  and  contains  somewhat  more  dry 
matter  per  ton  than  corn  silage. 

In  California  and  other  western  States  where  foxtail  is  often 
a  serious  pest  in  alfalfa  fields  during  the  early  part  of  the  season, 
the  first  crop  is  siloed  by  some  farmers,  and  the  foxtail  thus  ren- 
dered harmless;  the  beards  remain  soft  in  the  silage  and  do  not 
cause  trouble  to  farm  animals  eating  it,  as  is  generally  the  case 
when  this  crop  is  made  into  hay,  especially  if  cut  rather  late,  after 
the  foxtail  heads  are  nearly  ripe.  Silage  from  such  weedy  alfalfa 
will  be  of  good  quality  if  put  up  in  accordance  with  the  directions 
given,  and  is  often  better  than  that  from  pure  alfalfa.  The  last 
crop  of  alfalfa  is  also  frequently  siloed  in  the  region  mentioned, 
owing  to  the  rainy  weather  that  is  likely  to  prevail  at  this  time, 
rendering  it  difficult  to  make  this  crop  into  hay. 

8  Circular  28. 


SILOS  AND  SILAGE  159 

Clover  and  other  legumes  are  not  often  used  as  silage  crops 
for  the  reasons  stated  above,  and  when  so  used  the  silage  is  generally 
made  under  conditions  similar  to  those  just  given  for  alfalfa,  when 
they  cannot  very  well  be  cured  into  hay.  As  the  legumes  have  a 
large  proportion  of  leaves  and  tender  stems,  they  dry  out  rapidly 
and  must  be  run  through  a  cutter  and  siloed  as  soon  as  possible 
after  being  mowed.  Clover,  like  alfalfa,  is  cut  for  the  silo  when 
about  one-third  of  the  plants  are  in  full  bloom,  or  before  the  first 
single  heads  are  beginning  to  wilt.  According  to  trials  conducted  at 
several  experiment  stations,  the  largest  yields  of  dry  matter  and  of 
all  feed  components  except  fiber  are  obtained  from  clover  when  it 
is  cut  at  this  stage  (p.  57).  If  the  cutting  has  been  delayed  beyond 
this  stage,  the  safer  plan  is  to  add  water  to  the  clover  as  it  is  ele- 
vated into  the  silo,  or  to  add  water  in  the  silo  after  each  load  or 
half-day  run. 

The  losses  of  feed  materials  in  the' siloing  process  in  the  case  of 
clover,  alfalfa,  etc.,  are  but  slightly  larger  than  for  corn,  so  far  as 
can  be  judged  from  the  limited  data  at  hand  regarding  this  point. 
When  put  up  in  the  manner  stated  and  well  packed  in  an  air-tight 
silo,  the  necessary  loss  of  dry  matter  in  clover  or  alfalfa  will  not 
be  likely  to  exceed  10  per  cent.  This  is  a  much  lower  loss  than  that 
sustained  in  making  hay  from  alfalfa  (and  probably  from  clover 
and  other  leafy  legumes  as  well),  on  account  of  the  unavoidable 
and  often  considerable  abrasion  of  leaves  and  tender  parts  in  the 
process  of  haymaking;  as  previously  shown,  this  has  been  esti- 
mated at  15  to  20  per  cent  as  a  minimum,  and  as  high  as  60  per 
cent  of  the  hay  crop  in  extreme  cases  (p.  59).  Aside  from  the  losses 
sustained  through  abrasion,  rain  storms,  when  these  occur,  may 
reduce  the  value  of  the  hay  one-half.  The  losses  from  either  of 
these  sources  are  avoided  in  preserving  the  crop  in  the  silo,  and  in 
their  place  a  small  loss  of  10  per  cent  or  less  will  occur  under 
ordinary  favorable  conditions  through  the  respiration  of  the  plant 
cells  and  the  fermentations  in  the  silo. 

The  reason  why  legumes  are  not  siloed  more  generally  must  be 
sought  in  the  fact  that  it  is  more  difficult  to  secure  a  good  quality 
of  silage  from  these  crops  than  from  Indian  corn,  unless  the  neces- 
sary conditions  for  success  in  making  legume  silage  are  clearly  under- 
stood ;  furthermore,  the  flavor  of  the  silage  is  not,  as  a  rule,  as  agree- 
able as  that  of  corn  silage,  and  farm  animals  do  not  relish  it  quite  so 
much.  When  once  accustomed  to  legume  silage,  however,  they  do 
well  on  it;  dairy  cows  will  eat  20  to  25  pounds  of  clover  or  alfalfa 


160 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 


silage  per  head  daily.  On  account  of  the  larger  amount  of  protein 
furnished  in  this  feed  than  in  corn  silage,  less  or  cheaper  concen- 
trates may  be  fed  in  the  rations  and  the  cost  of  production  thus 
decreased. 

Cowpeas  and  soybeans  are  used  as  silage  crops  to  some  extent 
in  the  South,  either  mixed  with  Indian  corn  (Fig.  32),  as  previously 
stated,  or  grown  and  siloed  separately.  The  Maryland  station 
found  cowpea  silage  of  somewhat  higher  feeding  value  than  corn 
silage.  The  cowpeas  should  be  siloed  when  the  peas  are  well  ma- 

•/,:•  •     "  *     :i  j;  ;i 


Fia.  32. — Corn  and  soybeans  grown  for  silage.  When  cut  and  placed  in  the  silo  (one 
ton  of  soybeans  to  three  tons  of  corn)  this  crop  makes  a  very  valuable  feed  for  dairy  cows. 
Wisconsin  Station.) 

tured,  since  immature  vines  make  an  acid,  watery  silage.  Farmers 
who  have  had  considerable  practical  experience  with  this  silage  are 
of  the  opinion  that  it  has  no  equal  as  a  feed  for  cows  and  sheep; 
it  is  also  a  good  hog  feed,  and  is  considered  greatly  superior  to  pea- 
vine  hay  for  all  these  animals.  In  feeding  experiments  at  the  Dela- 
ware station,  six  pounds  of  pea-vine  silage  fully  took  the  place  of 
one  pound  of  wheat  bran,  and  the  product  from  one  acre  was  found 
equivalent  to  two  tons  of  bran. 

Soybeans  make  silage  of  a  fair  quality  when  siloed  alone,  and 
can  be  more  easily  handled  than  cowpeas.  The  larger  late  varie- 
ties yielding  heavy  crops  of  forage  are  to  be  preferred  for  the  silo. 


SILOS  AND  SILAGE  161 

Corn-soybean  silage  gave  better  results  with  dairy  cows  than  straight 
soybean  silage,  in  experiments  by  Professor  Humphrey  and  the 
author  at  Wisconsin  station.9 

Pea  or  corn  cannery  refuse  is  often  put  up  in  large  silage 
stacks  near  the  factories  or  in  ordinary  silos.  It  makes  a  valuable 
feed  for  fattening  cattle,  sheep,  or  dairy  cows,  and  compares  favor- 
ably with  corn  silage;  by  some  feeders  it  is  considered  superior  to 
this  silage,  especially  for  dairy  cows.  It  is  also  fed  to  horses,  mules, 
and  hogs  to  a  limited  extent.10  Like  other  kinds  of  silage,  it  should 
be  fed  with  dry  hay  or  cornstalks,  and,  for  best  results,  with  some 
grain  feed,  and  not  as  exclusive  feed,  as  is  sometimes  done. 

Green  oats  and  other  cereal  fodders  are  occasionally  siloed  when 
grown  for  forage  or  in  case  they  cannot  be  used  for  grain.  They 
are  cut  when  the  kernels  are  past  the  milky  stage  and  filled  into  the 
silo  after  having  been  run  through  a  cutter.  If  the  grain  has  be- 
come nearly  ripe,  it  is  necessary  to, add  considerable  water;  to  the 
green  fodder  as  it  goes  into  the  silo,  either  through  the  blower  or  in 
the  silo  after  each  load,  and  the  cut  mass  must  be  carefully,  dis- 
tributed-in  the  silo  and.  tramped  down  along  the  wall  of.  the  silo. 
Oat  silage  made  in  this  manlier  is  of  excellent  quality  and  furnishes 
a  very  palatable,  nutritious  feed  for  cattle  and  sheep.. 

Beet  tops  and  leaves  are  generally  siloed  in- European  beet- 
growing  countries  by  being  placed  in  large  trenches  in  the  field  and 
covering  these  with  boards  or  straw  and  a  layer  of  dirt.  Preserved 
in  this  way,  they  make  a  .sHmy,  strong-smelling  silage,  which  is, 
however,  greatly  relished  by  milch,  cows  and,  fed  heavily  on:  the 
dairy  farms  on  the  Continent.  Because  of  the  shallowness  ;of  the 
pits,  large  losses  of  feed  materials  are  sustained  by  this  metliod 
of  siloing,  viz.,  25  to  33  per  cent  or  more  of  the  dry  matter  in  the 
leaves  and  tops. 

Beet  pulp  is  preserved  in  similar  trenches  or  shallow  pits  in  the 
western  States  where  the  manufacture  of  beet  sugar  is  an  important 
industry.  The  siloed  ("  cured  ")  beet  pulp  is  an  excellent  feed  for 
fattening  steers,  sheep,  or  dairy  cows;  as  it  is  made  mostly  in  re- 
gions where  alfalfa  is  the  main  hay  crop,  it  is  always  fed  with  alfalfa 
hay,  which  it  supplements  nicely,  being  high  in  insoluble  carbo- 
hydrates (2.8  per  cent)  and  relatively  low  in  protein  (1.0  per  cent 
crude  protein  and  0.3  per  cent  digestible  crude  protein).  Its  feed- 
ing value  may  be  considered  equal  to  about  one-half  that  of  corn 
silage.  Of  other  materials  made  into  silage  may  be  mentioned: 

9  Report  21,  p.  67 ;  Cornell  Bulletin  310. 

10  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Circular  45. 
11 


162  DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 

Apple  pomace,11  wet  brewers'  grains,  sorghum  bagasse,  cane  tops,12 
potato  tops,  hop  vines,  sugar-beet  tops  and  shocked  corn,13  prickly 
pears,14  thistles,  and  other  weeds.15 

None  of  these  materials  are,  however,  of  sufficient  importance  to 
call  for  more  than  a  mere  mention. 

Publications  by  Experiment  Stations  on  Silos  and  Silage  Crops, 
(r.,  report;  b.,  bulletin;  c.,  circular.) — Ark.,  r.  ii,  1889,  pp.  68-77;  Col.,  b. 
30,  1895,  pp.  21-23;  b.  200,  Aug.,  1914;  Cojui.  (Storrs),  b.  70,  Jan.,  1912; 
Del.,  r.  1902,  p.  30;  Fla.,  b.  78,  Mar.,  1905;  92,  Mar.,  1908;  16,  Jan.,  1892; 
111.,  b.  43,  101;  Ind.,  b.  40,  June,  1892,  b.  163;  Iowa,  b.  100,  July,  1908; 
107,  June,  1910;  141,  July,  1913;  c.  6,  Jan.,  1913;  Kan.,  b.  6,  June,  1889, 
pp.  61-74;  c.  28,  b.  48;  La.,  b.  143,  Mar.,  1914;  Md.,  r.  1889-91;  b.  129,  July, 
1908;  Mich.,  b.  47,  April,  1889;  spec.  b.  6,  Dec.,  1896;  b.  255,  May,  1909; 
Minn.,  b.  40;  Miss.,  b.  8,  Aug.,  1889;  Mo.,  c.  48,  67;  Mont.,  b.  94,  July,  1913; 
Neb.,  b.  17,  1891;  b.  138,  May,  1913;  N.  H.,  b.  14,  Ay,  1891;  c.  16,  June, 
1914;  N.  J.,  b.  161;  N.  Y.  (Geneva),  b.  102,  N.  S.;  N.  Y.  (Cornell),  b.  167, 
March,  1899;  N.  C.,  b.  80,  Oct.,  1891;  N.  D.,  b.  98,  July,  1912;  Ohio,  b.  5,  vol. 
ii,  No.  3,  S.  S.,  June,  1889;  Okla.,  c.  33,  34,  and  36,  June-Aug.,  1914;  Ore., 
b.  9,  Feb.,  1891;  b.  85;  Pa.  (Bd.  of  Agr.),  r.  1894,  pp.  232-237;  b.  118,  Oct., 
1912;  S.  D.,  b.  51,  Feb.,  1897;  Tenn.,  b.  105,  April,  1914,  vol.  17,  No.  1,  Jan., 
1904;  Va.,  b.  53,  pp.  53-80;  70,  pp.  115-119;  182,  June,  1909;  Wash.,  b.  14, 
Nov.,  1894;  pop.  b.  10,  Sept.,  1908;  W.  Va.,  b.  129;  Wis.,  b.  19,  April,  1889; 
28,  July,  1891;  59,  May,  1897;  83,  April,  1900;  Farmers'  B.  32,  Nov.,  1895; 
292,  Dec.,  1907;  353,  April,  1909;  556,  Oct.,  1913;  578,  May,  1914;  Bur.  Ani- 
mal Industry,  r.  23,  1906;  c.  136,  Jan.,  1909;  Ontario  (Canada),  b.  32,  Aug., 
1888;  42,  May,  1889;  r.  1905,  p.  101;  (Bur.  of  Ind.)  b.  39,  April,  1892; 
Ottawa  (Canada),  b.  65. 

QUESTIONS 

>L  What  is  a  silo,  and  of  what  materials  are  silos  built? 

2.  What  is  the  capacity  of  a  round  silo  16  feet  in  diameter  and  36  feet  high? 

Of  one  14  feet  in  diameter  and  32  feet  high  ? 

3.  Of  what  dimensions  would  you  build  a  silo  of  a  capacity  of  (a)  50  tons, 

(6)   100  tons? 

4.  What  capacity  and  dimension  of  silo  would  you  need  for  a  herd  of  25  dairy 

cows,  feeding  these  on  the  average  (a)   30  pounds  per  head  daily  for 
a  period  of  120  days,   (&)  25  pounds  daily  for  a  period  of  200  days? 

5.  Give  three  important  points  in  building  silos. 

6.  State  the  main  advantages  of  the  silo  on  American  dairy  and  stock  farms. 

7.  Mention  the  six  main  silage  crops  and  their  characteristics  for  feeding 

different  classes  of  farm  animals. 

11  Vermont  Report  1903. 

12  Louisiana  Bulletin  143,  p.  12. 

13  Wisconsin  Bulletin  228,  p.  42. 

14  New  South  Wales  Gazette,  8,  p.  505. 

™IUd.,  9,  p.  71.  See  also  "  A  Book  on  Silage,"  by  the  author,  Rev.  ed., 
pp.  34  and  35. 


CHAPTEE  XVI 
THE  CONCENTRATES 

Concentrates1  are  feeding  stuffs  containing  a  large  amount  of 
nutrients  in  small  bulk,  such  as  grains,  mill  feeds,  and  oil  meals. 
Another  general  name  for  these  feeding  stuffs  is  concentrated  feeds 
or  "  grain  f eeds."  They  are,  in  general,  characterized  by  relatively 
high  amounts  of  valuable  feed  components  and  a  high  digestibility, 
and  by  relatively  low  amounts  of  water  and  fiber.  There  are  prob- 
ably several  hundred  feeds  of  this  kind  used  for  the  nutrition  of 
farm  animals  in  this  country,  but  only  the  more  important  kinds 
will  be  considered  in  this  book.  They  may  conveniently  be  dis- 
cussed under  the  following  heads: 

1.  Grains  and  other  seeds. 

2.  Flour-mill  and  cereal  feeds. 

3.  Brewery  and  distillery  feeds. 

4.  Starch-  and  glucose-factory  feeds. 

5.  Sugar-factory  feeds. 

6.  Oil-mill  feeds. 

7.  Packing-house  feeds. 

8.  Dairy  products. 

9.  Proprietary  feeds. 

10.  Miscellaneous  feeds. 

I.    CEREAL  GRAINS 

The  cereal  grains  are  standard  feeds,  more  or  less  familiar  to 
all  farmers,  and  until  recently  the  main  reliance  of  feeders  for  con- 
centrates. When  market  prices  are  not  prohibitive,  no  better  or  more 
highly  nutritious  feeds  can  be  obtained  for  feeding  farm  animals. 
The  cereals  contain  a  medium  percentage  of  protein  (8  to  12  per 
cent,  nearly  all  in  albuminoid  form),  a  high  percentage  of  carbo- 
hydrates (about  70  per  cent,  largely  starch),  and  a  medium  fat 
content  (2  to  5  per  cent).  The  percentage  of  ash  is  rather  low  on 
account  of  relatively  large  amounts  of  carbohydrates  and  other 
organic  components,  but  it  is  high  in  potash  and  phosphoric  acid, 
and  low  in  lime.  The  starch  in  the  grains  is  formed  during  the  last 
part  of  the  growing  period;  hence,  if  this  is  checked  by  drought 
or  lodging  of  the  crops,  the  grains  will  be  lower  in  carbohydrates 
and  relatively  higher  in  protein  than  normally  ripened  grain. 
Damaged,  shrunken  grains,  No.  3,  No.  4,  or  rejected  grains  are, 
therefore,  as  a  general  rule,  of  a  higher  feeding  value  than  grain 
that  is  graded  high  and  commands  the  highest  prices  oft  the  market. 
The  leading  cereals,  so  far  as  stock  feeding  goes,  will  now  be  con- 

1  This  term  was  originally  introduced  by  Professor  W.  A.  Henry,  of 
Wisconsin,  in  the  nineties,  and  has  now  come  into  general  use. 

163 


164 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 


sidered  in  the  order  of  their  importance  for  this  purpose,  followed 
by  the  minor  grains,  leguminous  seeds,  and  oil-bearing  seeds. 

Indian  corn  (maize,  Zea,  mays)  is  the  most  important  cereal 
crop  in  our  country.  In  1909  the  area  in  corn  made  up  more  than 
one-half  of  the  entire  acreage  devoted  to  grain  raising ;  wheat  com- 
ing second,  with  28  per  cent  of  the  total  acreage,  and  oats  third 
(20  per  cent  of  the  total  acreage).  Corn  was  grown  on  82  out  of 
every  100  American  farms,  according  to  the  United  States  census 
of  that  year.  While  Indian  corn  may  be  grown  successfully  in 
every  State  in  the  Union,  it  thrives  best  and  reaches  its  greatest 
importance  as  a  cereal  and  a  forage  plant  in  the  vast  interior  of  our 
continent,  lying  between  the  large  eastern  and  western  mountain 
ranges,  especially  in  the  prairie  States  in  or  near  the  Mississippi 
valley.  The  latter  are  generally  spoken  of  as  the  "  Corn  belt/' 
The  most  important  corn-producing  States,  according  to  the  census 
of  1909,  were: 

Illinois  (with  a  production  of  390,000,000  bushels),  Iowa 
(342,000,000),  Indiana  (195,000,000),  Missouri  (191,000,000), 
Nebraska,  Ohio,  and  Kansas  following  in  the  order  given,  each  with 
yields  of  over  150,000,000  bushels  of  corn.  The  entire  corn  crop 
for  the  whole  United  States  for  the  year  given  aggregated  nearly 
a  billion  and  a  half  dollars  in  value. 

Corn  is  the  most  variable  of  all  cereals,  both  as  regards  the  size 
to  which  it  grows  and  the  form  of  the  kernel  of  the  different  varie- 
ties. "  In  the  South  the  tropical  corn  stems,  four  or  five  months 
from  planting,  carry  great  ears  burdened  with  grain  so  high  that 
a  man  can  only  touch  them  by  reaching  high  above  his  head.  At 
the  other  extreme,  the  Mandan  Indian  in  the  country  of  the  Red 
River  of  the  North  developed  a  race  of  corn  which  reached  only  to 
the  shoulders  of  the  squaw,  with  tiny  ears  borne  scarcely  a  foot  from 
the  ground  on  pigmy  stalks."  (Henry.) 

There  are  six  different  races  of  Indian  corn,  but  only  three 
of  these  are  of  importance  for  feeding  farm  animals,  viz.,  dent, 
flint,  and  sweet  corn.  The  average  composition  of  these  races  is  as 
follows : 

Average  Chemical  Composition  of  Indian  Corn,  in  Per  Cent 


Ash 

Crude 
protein 

Fiber 

Nitrogen- 
free 
extract 

Fat 

Dent  corn  

1.5 

10.3 

2.2 

70.4 

5.0 

Flint  corn 

1  4 

105 

1  7 

70  1 

5.0 

Sweet  corn 

1.9 

11  6 

2.8 

66.8 

8.1 

THE  CONCENTRATES  165 

The  main  difference  in  the  composition  of  these  three  races  lies 
in  the  higher  fat,  protein,  ash,  and  fiber  contents  of  sweet  corn,  and 
its  lower  nitrogen-free  extract,  than  that  of  the  other  races.  Of 
the  differences  given  those  in  the  protein,  fat,  and  carbohydrate 
contents  are  the  most  important;  the  high  percentages  of  fat  and 
sugar  in  sweet  corn  are  probably  responsible  for  the  fondness  of 
stock  for  this  corn. 

Characteristics  of  Corn. — Although  fairly  rich  in  protein,  corn 
is  especially  a  carbohydrate  grain,  containing  nearly  70  per  cent  of 
pure  starch.  Its  high  fat  content  (about  5  to  8  per  cent)  increases 
its  value  as  a  fattening  and  heat-producing  feed  and  adds  to  its 
palatability  to  farm  animals.  Corn  is  low  in  ash  (less  than  2  per 
cent),  and  this  contains  only  a  small  proportion  of  lime  and  phos- 
phorus; hence  corn  is  less  valuable  than  other  cereals  for  feeding 
young  stock!  and  for  milk-producing  animals  and  poultry,  all  of 
which  require  considerable  mineral  matter  for  building  up  their 
bone  structure,  or  for  ash  in  milk  or  egg-shells.  By  feeding  corn 
as  a  sole  feed  to  pigs,  farmers  in  the  corn  belt  and  elsewhere  have 
sustained  large  losses  through  overfattened,  weakly  swine,  with 
poor  bone,  that  fell  an  easy  prey  to  disease  (p.  301). 

As  shown  elsewhere,  corn  can  be  supplemented  for  best  results 
with  feeds  rich  in  protein  and  mineral  substances  in  feeding  the 
classes  of  live  stock  mentioned.  Corn  is  fed  either  whole  as  ear 
corn,  or  shelled  or  ground.  The  best  method  of  feeding  varies 
according  to  the  kind  and  age  of  the  animal,  and  will  be  considered 
under  the  respective  classes  of  live  stock,  along  with  the  adaptability 
and  general  value  of  corn  in  each  case.  Instead  of  grinding  the 
shelled  corn,  the  ear  corn  is  sometimes  ground  "cob  and  all." 
This  feed,  known  as  corn  and  cob  meal,  has  been  found  to  be  of  value 
in  making  a  lighter  feed  than  corn  meal,  and  makes,  a  good  feed  for 
horses,  steers,  and  milch  cows.  Experiments  have  shown  that  it 
has  a  similar  value  to  corn  meal,  pound  for  pound,  for  these  animals. 

Ear  corn  contains  varying  proportions  of  cob,  according  to  the 
race,  variety,  and  maturity  of  the  corn,  an  average  ratio  for  dent 
corn  being  14  pounds  of  cob  to  56  pounds  of  shelled  corn.  The  cob 
is  very  low  in  valuable  feed  materials  and  contains  about  30  per 
cent  fiber;  the  carbohydrates  are  composed  largely  of  pentosans  (31 
per  cent)  and  substances  of  lower  feeding  value  than  starch.  The 
cob  therefore  adds  but  little  to  the  value  of  the  ground  corn  in  it- 
self, but  the  benefit  from  grinding  the  corn  and  cob  together  comes 
from  the  mechanical  effect,  rendering  the  ground  meal  lighter  and 
insuring  a  more  complete  action  of  the  digestive  juices  on  the  same. 


166 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 


Corn  Proteins. — The  proteins  of  corn,  according  to  Osborne, 
are  composed  of  about  58  per  cent  zein  (a  characteristic  alcohol- 
soluble  protein),  albumen,  globulin,  and  proteose,  together  6  per 
cent,  and  the  remaining  30  per  cent  glutelin.2  While  little  is  known 
so  far  regarding  the  specific  nutritive  properties  of  the  different 
protein  substances,  it  seems  evident  that  the  special  corn  proteins 
possess  important  advantages  over  those  of  the  wheat  or  the  oat 
plant.  Investigations  conducted  during  a  series  of  years  at  the 
Wisconsin  station  have  shown  that  corn  is  the  only  one  of  the  three 
cereals  which  can  properly  nourish  dairy  cows  for  long  periods  and 
kept  them  in  a  strong,  healthy  condition  so  that  they  will  give 
birth  to  normally-developed,  vigorous  calves.3  It  has  not  been 
established  that  this  difference  in  the  nutritive  effects  of  the  three 
plants  fed  by  themselves  is  due  to  differences  in  the  composition 
of  the  protein  compounds,  but,  with  our  present  incomplete  knowl- 
edge of  this  subject,  it  seems  most  likely  that  the  phenomena  brought 
to  light  in  the  important  investigations  referred  to  must  be  ex- 
plained by  differences  in  the  inner  constitution  of  the  proteins  in 
these  crops. 

Oats  are  a  highly-prized  feed  for  farm  animals,  especially  horses, 
cows,  sheep,  and  young  stock.  Next  to  corn,  they  are  the  most 
important  cereal  for  feeding  livestock  in  the  United  States.  Their 
cost  frequently  makes  them  rather  expensive  for  feeding  other 
stock  than  horses,  but,  when  not  too  costly,  there  is  no  better  con- 
centrated feed  for  the  animals  mentioned.  Oats  vary  greatly  in 
their  percentage  of  hulls;  a  good  quality  of  oats  contains,  on  the 
average,  about  30  per  cent  hulls,  while  light  oats  may  contain  con- 
siderably over  40  per  cent  hulls  (or  16  per  cent  fiber).  Oats  con- 
tain more  fiber  and  protein  and  nearly  as  much  fat  as  corn,  as  will 
be  seen  from  the  analyses  given  below : 

Composition  of  Oats  and  Oat  Hulls,  in  Per  Cent 


Protein 

Fat 

Fiber 

Ash 

Digestible 

Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 
and  fat 

Oats  

11.4 
3.4 

4.8 
1.3 

10.8 

30.7 

3.2 
6.7 

8.8 
1.3 

58.9 

39.9 

Oat  hulls  

2  Science,  1913,  p.  185;  Journal  Biological  Chemistry,  1913,  xxxi,  No.  2. 
8  Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  17. 


THE  CONCENTRATES 


167 


The  hulls  serve  a  similar  purpose  as  corn  cobs  in  grinding  the 
grain,  making  the  meal  lighter  and  more  easily  digested.  Oats 
are  generally  fed  whole,  however,  except  in  the  case  of  old  or  very 
young  animals  that  cannot  masticate  their  feed  thoroughly.  Ground 
or  rolled  oats  are  to  be  preferred  for  feeding  such  animals.  The 
favorable  effect  of  oats  on  horses  has  long  been  known,  and  it  has 
been  held  that  no  other  grain  or  feed  is  equal  to  oats  for  them. 
It  has  been  stated  by  various  scientists  that  oats  contain  a  special 
stimulating  principle  not  found  in  other  grains,  but  the  matter  has 
not  yet  been  fully  settled.  In  1883  Sanson,  a  French  chemist, 
claimed  to  have  discovered  a  characteristic  nitrogenous  alkaloid 
in  oats  called  "  avenin,"  having  a  stimulating  effect  on  the  motor 
nerves  of  the  horse,  but  subsequent  investigators  have  been 
unable  to  verify  the  presence  of  such  a  compound.  The  careful 
and  exhaustive  studies  by  Osborne  have  shown  that  the  proteins 
of  the  oat  kernels  are  made  up  of  glutenin  (about  11  per  cent) 
and  a  small  amount  of  a  globulin  called  avenalin  (1.5  per  cent). 
It  is  very  likely  that  the  digestive  ferments  found  in  oats  are 
of  importance  in  the  digestion  of  this  grain.  The  mechanical 
effect  of  oats  in  inciting  a  free  flow  of  digestive  juices  may  also  be  a 
factor  in  bringing  about  the  favorable  results  which  oats  doubtless 
produce  in  the  feeding  of  horses. 

New  oats  must  be  fed  with  care  to  horses,  as  they  have  a  decided 
loosening  effect  on  the  bowels.  The  change  in  this  respect  that  takes 
place  in  oats  in  storage  also,  in  all  probability,  comes  as  a  result  of 
the  action  of  the  oat  enzymes  on  some  of  the  constituents  of  the  oats.4 

Digestibility  of  Oats. — The  following  summary  of  digestion 
coefficients  shows  the  extent  to  which  the  different  classes  of  farm 
animals  can  digest  oats: 

Average  Digestion  Coefficients  for  Oats,  in  Per  Cent 


Animals  used 

Number  of 
trials 

Dry 
matter 

Protein 

Fiber 

Nitrogen- 
free 
extract 

Fat 

Ruminants  
Horses  

6 
4 

70 
74 

77 
84 

31 
22 

77 
82 

89 
81 

Poultry 

13 

63* 

71 

90 

88 

*  Organic  matter. 

Horses  are  evidently  able  to  digest  the  dry  matter  of  oats,  as 
well  as  the  protein  and  nitrogen-free  extract,  better  than  do  rumi- 

4  Farmers'  Bulletin  420. 


168  DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 

nants,  while  these  animals  digest  the  fiber  and  fat  better  than  do 
horses. 

Oats  do  not  have  quite  as  high  digestibility  as  Indian  corn,  so 
far  as  fiber  and  nitrogen-free  extract  are  concerned,  due  to  the 
higher  percentage  and  the  more  woody  character  of  the  fiber  in 
oats  than  in  corn.  The  coefficients  for  protein  and  fat  in  the  two 
grains,  on  the  other  hand,  are  about  similar.  The  high  fat  contents 
of  these  two  grains  are  doubtless  important  factors  in  making  them 
palatable  stock  feeds.  Oats,  as  a  rule,  have  a  somewhat  lower  feed- 
ing value  than  corn,  although  this  depends  largely  on  the  combina- 
tion in  which  they  are  fed.  In  general,  a  mixture  of  the  two  grains 
gives  better  results  than  either  fed  alone.  This  rule  does  not  hold 
good,  however,  in  the  case  of  oats  for  horses  (p.  287). 

Corn  and  Oats  ("  Ground  feed  "). — Mixtures  of  corn  and  oats 
are  ground  together  and  sold  in  immense  quantities  in  eastern  and 
central  States  as  "  ground  feed  "  or  "  ground  corn  and  oats."  This 
is  used  for  feeding  horses  and  dairy  cows,  especially  the  former, 
for  which  purpose  it  is  well  adapted.  A  good  grade  of  corn  and  oats 
makes  a  valuable  horse  feed,  but  low-grade  materials,  like  oat  hulls, 
refuse  from  oatmeal  factories,  ground  corn  cobs,  etc.,  are  often  added 
in  making  the  feed,  and  its  purchase  cannot  be  recommended  outside 
of  States  which  have  feed  inspection  laws  on  their  statute-books, 
where  the  feed  may  be  bought  on  definite  guarantees  of  protein,  fat, 
and  maximum  fiber  contents.  The  wholesome  effect  of  feed  inspec- 
tion laws  has  been  strikingly  illustrated  in  the  quality  of  the 
ground  feed  sold  in  a  State  before  and  after  the  passage  of  such 
protective  laws.5 

Ground  oats  and  corn  are  generally  sold  on  a  guarantee  of  9  to 
10  per  cent  protein,  3'  to  4  per  cent  fat,  and  7  to  9  per  cent  maximum 
fiber,  according  to  the  proportions  of  the  two  grains  entering  into 
the  feed.  These  may  vary  from  one  of  com  to  three  of  oats  by 
weight  to  three  of  corn  and  one  of  oats.  The  market  prices  of  the 
two  grains  determine  largely  the  proportions  used  of  each,  more 
corn  being  used,  when  this  grain  is  the  cheaper,  and  vice  versa. 
Since  corn  contains  only  about  2  per  cent  fiber,  and  oats,  on  the 
average,  about  10  per  cent,  mixtures  of  the  two  grains  will  not 
be  likely  to  contain  over  7  per  cent  fiber.  A  fiber  content  of  over 
9  per  cent  is  conclusive  evidence  that  the  ground  feed  is  either 
adulterated,  or  that  a  very  poor  grade  of  light  oats  was  used  in  its 
manufacture. 

3  Wisconsin  Circular  30,  p.  83,  January,  1912. 


THE  CONCENTRATES  169 

Barley  is  mainly  used  for  stock  feeding  on  the  Pacific  coast  in 
this  country,  but  in  middle  and  northern  Europe  it  is  one  of  the 
common  grain  feeds  for  farm  animals.  It  makes  an  excellent  feed 
for  horses  and  dairy  cows,  and,  fed  with  dairy  by-products,  produces 
a  fine  quality  of  pork.  It  is  generally  fed  ground,  cracked,  or  rolled. 
The  last  method  of  preparation  is  considered  preferable,  because 
fine-ground  barley  forms  a  .pasty  mass  in  the  mouth  of  animals 
and  is  more  likely  to  give  rise  to  digestive  troubles  than  when  rolled, 
as  is  the  case  with  fine-ground  corn  or  corn  and  oats  for  horses. 
There  is  a  prejudice  among  some  farmers  against  feeding  barley 
to  milch  cows,  but  this  is  doubtless  unfounded,  for  its  value  for 
milk  production  has  been  fully  established.  In  an  experiment  at  the 
California  University  Farm6  a  cow  that  received  green  alfalfa  or 
alfalfa  hay  and  only  rolled  barley  in  addition,  10  pounds  daily  as  a 
maximum  feed,  produced  an  average  of  60  pounds  of  milk  for  a 
period  of  over  three  months,  and  not  only  did  better  on  this  feed, 
but  kept  up  better  in  her  milk  flow  than  during  any  previous  lacta- 
tion period. 

Barley  is  higher  in  protein  and  carbohydrates  than  oats,  and 
lower  in  fat,  containing,  on  the  average,  12.0  per  cent  protein,  1.8 
per  cent  fat,  4.2  per  cent  fiber,  68.7  per  cent  nitrogen-free  extract, 
and  2.5  per  cent  ash.  It  has  a  high  digestibility,  viz.,  on  the  average : 

For  ruminants,  protein  73  per  cent,  fat  79  per  cent,  and  nitrogen-free 
extract  92  per  cent. 

For  horses,  protein  80  per  cent,  fat  42  per  cent,  and  nitrogen-free  ex- 
tract 87  per  cent. 

For  swine,  protein  76  per  cent,  fat  G5  per  cent,  and  nitrogen-free  ex- 
tract 90  per  cent. 

While  it  is  considered  that  rain  or  foggy  weather  during  ripen- 
ing injures  the  quality  of  barley  for  brewing,  this  does  not  affect 
its  feeding  value  in  any  way,  and  barley  unfit  for  brewing  can  often 
be  obtained  for  feeding  purposes  at  a  low  figure. 

Rye  is  less  used  for  stock  feeding  in  America  than  the  three 
cereal  grains  considered  in  the  preceding.  Its  value  for  this  purpose 
is,  however,  well  established.  It  is  the  common  bread  grain  in 
northern  Europe,  and  is  also  fed  to  stock  when  its  price  is  not  too 
high.  Eye  does  not  differ  greatly  from  barley  in  the  composition 
or  feeding  value.  Its  average  composition  is :  11.3  per  cent  protein, 
1.9  per  cent  fat,  1.5  per  cent  fiber,  74.5  per  cent  nitrogen-free  ex- 
tract, and  2.1  per  cent  ash.  Its  average  digestion  coefficients,  as 
determined  with  cows,  are:  Protein,  80  per  cent;  fat,  86  per  cent, 
and  nitrogen-free  extract,  80  per  cent. 

6  Unpublished  results. 


170  DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 

Eye  makes  a  valuable  feed  for  horses  and  fattening  swine ;  it  is 
often  fed  soaked  to  the  latter  farm  animals,  and  is  preferably  fed 
ground  and  mixed  with  other  concentrates  to  other  classes  of  live- 
stock. Eye  was  found  to  have  about  the  same  feeding  value  as  barley 
in  extensive  Danish  swine-feeding  experiments,  and  the  quality  of 
the  pork  produced  was  satisfactory.  The  best  results  were,  how- 
ever, obtained  with  mixtures  of  the  two  cereals. 

Wheat  is  too  high-priced,  as  a  general  rule,  to  be  used  for  feed- 
ing farm  animals.  In  exceptional  cases  it  may  be  advisable  to  use 
it  for  this  purpose,  however,  and  it  is  well,  therefore,  to  understand 
its  nutritive  value  and  main  characteristics,  especially  since  the 
lower  grades  of  wheat  can  generally  be  used  for  stock  feeding  to 
advantage,  even  at  present-day  market  prices  for  grains. 

Wheat  stands  close  to  barley  in  composition  and  feeding  value. 
It  is  of  slightly  lower  value  as  a  feed  for  fattening  animals,  but 
is  superior  to  this  cereal  in  nutritive  effect  for  young  and  growing 
animals  and  for  dairy  cows.  It  is  lower  in  fat  but  somewhat  higher 
in  protein  and  carbohydrates  than  corn ;  its  digestibility  is  as  high 
as  that  of  the  other  cereals  except  oats,  which,  as  stated,  have  a 
somewhat  lower  digestibility  than  these  on  account  of  their  rela- 
tively high  fiber  content. 

Wheat  is  generally  ground  before  feeding.  On  account  of  its 
large  content  of  gliadin  and  glutenin,  it  forms  a  sticky  paste  when 
chewed,  and  for  this  reason  is  preferably  fed  in  mixtures  with  more 
bulky  concentrates,  like  oats  or  wheat  bran. 

Damaged  wltieat  (salvage  wheat  from  elevator  fires,  etc.)  is  at 
times  obtainable  at  a  low  cost;  the  better  grades  make  a  valuable 
feed,  but  slightly  inferior  to  a  good  grade  of  wheat. 

Grain  screenings  are  mixtures  of  broken  or  shrunken  grain, 
weed  seeds,  chaff,  pieces  of  straw,  dirt,  etc.,  which  are  obtained  in 
the  cleaning  of  grain  in  elevators.  They  vary  considerably  in  their 
chemical  composition  and  feeding  value,  according  to  their  origin 
and  the  character  of  the  impurities  contained  in  the  grain.  On 
account  of  the  large  proportion  of  different  weed  seeds  in  screenings, 
they  are  expensive  feeds  at  any  price  to  farmers  who  wish  to  keep 
their  land  as  free  as  possible  from  noxious  weeds.  Many  of  the 
weed  seeds  in  screenings  will  pass  through  the  animals  uninjured 
and  will  germinate  when  the  manure  is  put  on  the  land,7  thus 
rendering  cultivation  more  expensive  and  reducing  the  yield  of 
cultivated  crops  through  the  growth  of  weeds.  Many  farmers  do 
not,  therefore,  wish  to  buy  screenings  under  any  condition,  and  this 

7  Vermont  Bulletins  131  and  138. 


THE  CONCENTRATES 


171 


is  the  only  safe  position  to  take  towards  whole  screenings.  Finely- 
ground  screenings  often  make  satisfactory  and  cheap  feeds,  and,  if 
carefully  ground,  are  not,  as  a  rule,  objectionable.  Poisonous  weed 
seeds,  like  corn  cockle,  are  found  in  most  screenings,  but  they  are 
not  ordinarily  present  in  sufficient  quantities  to  give  rise  to  any 


FIG.  33. — Weeds  growing  from  seed  found  in  a  mixed  "dairy  feed."  This  contained 
100,000,000  weed  seeds  to  the  ton.  The  soil  was  sterilized,  so  that  it  is  certain  that  every 
plant  grew  from  a  weed  seed  in  the  feed.  Most  samples  of  whole  screenings  contain  still 
larger  numbers  of  weed  seeds.  (Vermont  Station.) 

trouble  in  stock  feeding.  Sheep  and  poultry  appear  to  be  able  to 
destroy  weed  seeds  of  screenings  more  thoroughly  than  other  farm 
animals,  and  do  well  on  them  (Fig.  33). 

Screenings  are  often  used  in  the  manufacture  of  mixed  feeds 
and  molasses  feeds,  in  the  latter  case  serving  as  absorbent  for  the 


172 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 


molasses.  Both  screenings  and  molasses  feeds  manufactured  from 
them  may  be  considered  worth  somewhat  less  than  wheat  bran,  ton 
for  ton. 

Ernmer  (often  incorrectly  called  speltz)  is  a  drought-resistant 
cereal  crop,  especially  valuable  in  the  semi-arid  western  United 
States,  where  it  is  extensively  grown  and  fed  to  stock.  Experiment 
stations  in  that  region  have  experimented  extensively  with  emmer 
for  a  number  of  years,  and  have  shown  that  it  is  well  worthy  of  a 
trial  by  farmers  in  those  States,  along  with  oats  or  where  oats  can- 
not be  grown.  Emmer  yields  good  crops  of  grain  (20  to  40  bushels 
per  acre),  and  compares  favorably  in  feeding  value  with  oats  and 
barley.  For  best  results,  mixtures  of  oats  or  other  grains  and  emmer 
are  ground  and  fed,-  instead  of  clear  emmer,  which  is  rather  fibrous 
and  bulky.  The  hulls  of  emmer  make  up  about  20  per  cent  of  the 
grain.  It  resembles  oats  more  than  any  other  grain  crop,  and  is 
largely  used  for  feeding  farm  animals  as  a  substitute  for  oats.  The 
following  compilation  of  digestion  coefficients  of  these  two  grain 
crops  and  of  barley  shows  that  emmer  stands  between  these  in  digest- 
ible components,  and  that  it  stands  nearer  oats  than  barley : 8 

Digestible  Components  in  Oats,  Emmer,  and  Barley,  in  Per  Cent 


Protein 

Fat 

Fiber 

Nitrogen- 
free 

Nutritive 

extract 

Oats     

10.73 

3.59 

3.17 

51.04 

1-58 

Emmer  

9.96 

1.36 

4.98 

52.06 

1:60 

Barley 

937 

1  66 

1  86 

6996 

1*  9  0 

Buckwheat  is  rarely  used  for  feeding  farm  animals,  either 
whole  or  ground,  since  it  is  too  valuable  as  a  raw  material  for  the' 
manufacture  of  buckwheat  flour.  The  by-products  obtained  in  the 
manufacture  of  this  flour  will  be .  considered  under  "  Flour  and 
Cereal  Mill  Feeds  "  (p.  183). 

Sweet  and  non-saccharine  sorghums  are  important  bread 
crops  for  the  peoples  of  Asia  and  Africa.  "  In  India  alone  over 
33,000,000  acres  of  land  are  annually  devoted  to  growing  the  millets, 
including  the  sorghums,  kafir,  milos,  etc.,  a  greater  area  than  is 
devoted  to  wheat  raising,  rice,  and  Indian  corn  combined.9 

8  Bureau  of  Chemistry,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bulletin  120; 
Farmers'  Bulletin  466. 

"Church,  "Food  Grains  in  India,"  1901;  cited  in  Henry,  "Feeds  and 
Feeding,"  p.  147. 


THE  CONCENTRATES 


173 


The  sorghums  may  be  divided  into  two  classes :  (1)  The  sweet  or 
saccharine  varieties,  of  which  amber  or  orange  cane  is  mostly  grown, 
and  (2)  the  non-saccharine  or  grain  sorghums,  which  are  smaller 
and  have  pithy  stems,  with  but  little  sweet  juice  (Fig.  34).  Sweet 
sorghum  is  grown  primarily  for  forage  and,  to  a  limited  extent  at 
the  present  day,  for  the  production  of  syrup.  The  non-saccharine 
sorghums  are  grown  both  for  grain  and  for  forage.  The  grain  sor- 
ghums are  represented  in  this  country  by  kafir  corn,  durra,  and 
milo  maize,  and  a  few  other  varieties  of  minor  importance.  Different 
strains  of  each  of  these  are  grown  and  possess  different  characteris- 


FIG.  34. — Types  of  grain  sorghums;  these  crops  are  of  increasing  importance  for  grain 
and  forage  to  farmers  in  the  western  United  States.  From  left  to  right:  1  and  2,  yellow 
Milo;  3  and  4,  white  and  brown  Kaoliang;  5,  Feterita  (Sudan  Durra);  6  to  8,  red,  pink, 
and  black-hulled  Kafir  corn.  (Breeders'  Gazette.) 

tics  that  make  them  of  special  value  under  varying  conditions.  The 
mam  cultivated  strains  are:  White  and  black  kafir,  white,  brown, 
and  Sudan  durra,  and  yellow  milo.  The  kafirs  and  milo  occur  in 
standard  and  dwarf  varieties.  White  durra  is  also  called  Jerusalem 
corn;  brown  durra,  Egyptian  corn,10  and  Sudan  durra,  feterita. 
The  grain  sorghums  are  valuable  forage  and  grain  plants,  especially 
suited  to  a  dry  and  hot  climate.  The  most  striking  characteristic  of 
the  grain  sorghums  is  their  ability  to  withstand  drought,  and  to 
make  a  good  growth  with  but  little  or  no  rainfall.  After  periods 
of  protracted  drought,  they  will  resume  growth  as  soon  as  water 


corn. 


10  Both  white  and  brown  durras  are  often  incorrectly  called  Egyptian 


174 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 


becomes  available.  In  this  respect  they  differ  greatly  from  Indian 
corn,  which  will  not  yield  satisfactorily  when  once  checked  in  its 
growth.  This  quality  makes  the  grain  sorghums  especially  valuable 
under  the  conditions  in  the  semi-arid  western  and  southwestern 
States.  They  bid  fair  to  become  of  great  agricultural  importance 
in  these  sections  of  the  country.  The  areas  sown  to  grain  sorghums 
in  Kansas  (Fig.  35),  Oklahoma,  and  Texas  have  increased  in  a 
marked  manner  during  the  last  ten  years,  and  they  are  apparently 
replacing  Indian  corn  to  some  extent  in  these  States.11 

The  grain  of  the  non-saccharine  sorghums  resembles  corn  in 
chemical  composition ;  it  contains  a  higher  percentage  of  starch  than 
corn,  but  less  protein  and  fat,  and  may  be  considered  not  quite  equal 
to  corn  in  feeding  value  or  palatability.  The  grain  should  be 


too* 
/oos 
t9oe 

t307 

tsoe 

tfOS 

19/0 
t9// 

VSSM 

^ 

f                 . 

'        i 

i 

t.               : 

7777J71 

^**^L 

VSSSSS7A 

., 

/9te\ 

tjts 

FIQ.  35. — Diagram  showing  increase  in  area  sown  to  grain  sorghums  in  Kansas  during  the 
decade  1904-13.     (Ball.) 

threshed  and  ground  for  feeding  to  fattening  cattle,  while  it  may 
be  fed  threshed  or  in  the  head  to  working  horses  and  sheep,  and 
preferably  "  heads  and  all "  to  idle  horses,  colts,  dairy  cattle,  and 
young  stock.  Ground  grain  is  fed  with  skim  milk  to  calves,  and 
moistened  with  water  or  skim  milk  to  hogs.  As  it  is  quite  carbon- 
aceous (N.R.,  milo  1:  9.7,  Egyptian  corn  1:  8.9),  it  makes  a  good 
supplemental  feed  for  hogs  fed  skim  milk  or  alfalfa,  either  hay  or 
pasture. 

Rice. — As  in  the  case  of  many  other  seeds,  rice  is  too  valuable 
as  a  human  food  to  allow  of  its  use  for  feeding  farm  stock,  and  it  is 
only  used  for  this  purpose  to  a  limited  extent  in  rice-growing  sec- 
tions. The  hull  or  husk  of  the  rice  kernel  is  rough  and  brittle,  and 

11 U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  Yearbook,  1913,  p.  221. 


THE  CONCENTRATES  175 

is  usually  removed  before  the  grain  is  sold.  The  hull  is  not,  as  we 
shall  see,  suited  for  feeding  livestock,  on  account  of  its  sharp  barbs 
and  high  content  of  ash  (silica,  see  p.  186),  but  it  is  sometimes 
ground  with  rice  for  feeding  purposes.  The  hulled  rice  is  a  very 
valuable  fattening  feed.  It  contains  considerably  more  nitrogen- 
free  extract  than  any  other  available  feeding  stuff,  viz.,  nearly  80 
per  cent,  while  its  protein  content  is  low  (on  the  average,  7.4  per 
cent).  Owing  to  the  high  starch  content  and  the  minute  amount 
of  fiber  in  the  hulled  rice,  it  has  the  highest  percentage  digestibility 
of  any  vegetable  feed  known,  its  digestion  coefficients  being  as  fol- 
lows, according  to  the  German  digestion  trials : 

Dry  matter,  98  per  cent;  protein,  86  per  cent;  nitrogen-free 
extract,  100  per  cent,  and  fat,  90  per  cent. 

According  to  the  Louisiana  station,  the  ground,  rough  rice  is 
worth  7  per  cent  more  than  corn  as  a  feed  for  farm  stock,  and 
hulled  rice  is  worth  16  per  cent  more.  Supplemented  with  cotton- 
seed meal  and  other  high-protein  feeds,  ground  rice  furnishes 
southern  farmers  a  highly  nutritious  ration  for  cattle,  sheep,  or 
horses.  The  only  thing  that  stands  in  the  way  of  its  general  use 
for  feeding  is  its  cost. 

II.    LEGUMINOUS  AND   OIL-BEARING    SEEDS 

The  leguminous  seeds,  like  peas  and  beans,  soybeans  and  cow- 
peas,  are  valuable  concentrated  feeds,  and  their  use  for  feeding 
farm  animals  is  increasing  every  year,  as  farmers  come  to  realize 
their  value  and  appreciate  that  they  can  greatly  reduce  their  feed 
bills  by  growing  high-protein  forage  and  grain  crops  on  their  farms. 
At  the  same  time  the  fertilizer  bills  may  be  reduced,  since  these 
crops  render  available  for  plant  use  the  free  nitrogen  of  the  air 
through  symbiosis  with  certain  soil  bacteria,  and  leave  the  soil 
richer  in  this  expensive  fertilizer  element  than  it  was  before  the 
crop  was  grown  thereon  (p.  113).  These  grains  have  a  high  digesti- 
bility and  contain  two  or  three  times  as  much  digestible  protein  as 
the  cereal  grains.  With  the  exception  of  soybeans,  which  contain 
nearly  15  per  cent  digestible  fat,  the  leguminous  seeds  are  all  very 
low  in  this  component,  containing  only  about  1  per  cent  thereof. 
Further  information  as  to  the  character  of  the  seeds  given  will  be 
found  under  the  discussion  of  the  respective  crops  as  forage  plants. 
The  chemical  composition  of  these  seeds  will  be  seen  from  the 
following : 


176  DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 

Chemical  Composition  of  Leguminous  Seeds,  in  Per  Cent    ' 


Digestible 

Protein 

Fat 

Ash 

Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 
and  fat 

N.  R. 

Canada  field  pea  
Horse  bean 

23.7 
26  6 

.8 

1  0 

2.4 

38 

19.7 
23  1 

50.2 
51  6 

1:2.5 

1-22 

Soybean  

33  5 

17  2 

48 

29  1 

562 

1-19 

Cowpea.  

205 

1  5 

32 

16.8 

57.4 

1:3.4 

Flaxseed  is  used  only  to  a  limited  extent  for  feeding  purposes, 
viz.,  mostly  as  a  calf  feed,  its  high  price  being  rather  prohibitive 
for  feeding  to  other  farm  animals.  It  is  always  ground  for  calf 
feeding  and  mixed  with  boiling  hot  water  in  the  proportion  of  a 
pound  of  meal  to  a  gallon  of  water.  The  jelly-like  liquid  thus 
formed  has  a  laxative  effect  and  forms  a  highly-prized  component 
of  calf  rations.  It  is  generally  fed  mixed  with  standard,  easily- 
digested  concentrates,  as  wheat  middlings,  ground  oats,  barley,  etc. 
(p.  221).  Flaxseed  contains  about  22  per  cent  protein,  33  per  cent 
fat  (oil),  and  7  per  cent  fiber;  it  has  a  high  digestibility,  containing 
over  20  per  cent  digestible  protein,  17  per  cent  nitrogen-free  extract, 
and  29  per  cent  fat ;  owing  to  the  large  content  of  digestible  fat,  its 
nutritive  ratio  is  considerably  wider  than  oil  meal,  viz.,  1 :  4.0  (p. 
348). 

Cotton  Seed. — Only  relatively  small  amounts  of  cotton  seed  aro 
now  fed  to  stock  on  account  of  the  value  of  the  seed  for  the  manu- 
facture of  cotton-seed  oil.  Formerly  the  seed  was  used  quite 
generally  throughout  the  South  as  a  feed  for  farm  animals.  It  is 
fed  either  raw,  roasted,  steamed,  or  boiled.  The  composition  of 
the  cotton  seed  is,  on  the  average,  as  follows : 

Water 9.9  per  cent 

Protein 19.4  per  cent 

Fat 19.5  per  cent 

Fiber 22.6  per  cent 

Nitrogen-free  extract 23.9  per  cent 

Ash 4.7  per  cent 

It  contains  about  11  per  cent  of  digestible  protein,  33  per  cent 
digestible  carbohydrates,  and  18  per  cent  digestible  fat.  Cotton 
seed  possesses  a  high  feeding  value,  especially  as  a  cattle  feed,  but 
has  sometimes  proved  injurious  to  stock  on  account  of  the  lint  and 
the  dust  that  it  collects.  The'  main  reason  for  its  present  limited 
use  as  a  stock  feed  is,  however,  that  the  seed  can  generally  be  sold 


THE  CONCENTRATES  177 

for  a  good  price  at  the  oil  mills,  or  exchanged  for  cotton-seed  meal 
at  the  rate  of  800  pounds  per  ton  of  seed.  It  has,  therefore,  now 
been  largely  replaced  by  cotton-seed  meal  in  the  feeding  of  farm 
animals.12 

Literature  on  Forage  and  Grain  Crops. — Hunt,  "  The  Forage  and 
Silage  Crops,"  New  York,  1907.  Hunt,  "  The  Cereals  in  America,"  New  York, 
1904.  Voorhees,  "  Forage  Crops,"  New  York,  1907.  Shaw,  "  Grasses  and 
How  to  Grow  Them,"  New  York,  1908.  Shaw,  "  Forage  Crops,"  New  York, 
1907.  Shaw,  "  Soiling  Crops  and  the  Silo,"  New  York,  1902.  Shaw, 
"Clovers  and  How  to  Grow  Them,"  1906;  Wallace,  "Clover  Farm,"  1898. 
Spillman,  "  Farm  Grasses  of  the  United  States,"  New  York,  1907.  Wing, 
"  Meadows  and  Pastures,"  Chicago.  Wing,  "Alfalfa  Farming  in  America," 
Chicago,  1909.  Coburn,  "  The  Book  of  Alfalfa,"  New  York,  1908.  Myrick, 
"  The  Book  of  Corn,"  New  York,  1903.  Shoesmith,  "  The  Study  of  Corn," 
New  York,  1910.  Montgomery,  "The  Corn  Crops,"  New  York.  Holden, 
"  A,  B,  C  of  Corn  Culture,"  1906.  Bowman  and  Crosley,  "  Corn,"  Ames, 
Iowa,  1908. 

Farmers'  Bulletins  11,  "The  Rape  Plant,"  1893.  164,  "Rape  as  a 
Forage  Crop,"  1903.  16,  "  Leguminous  Plants  for  Green  Manuring  and 
Feeding,"  1894.  18,  "  Forage  Plants  for  the  South,"  1894.  102,  "  Southern 
Forage  Plants,"  1899.  300,  "  Some  Important  Grasses  and  Forage  Plants 
for  the  Gulf  Coast  Region,"  1907.  147,  "  Winter  Forage  Crops  for  the 
South,"  1902.  436,  "Winter  Oats  for  the  South,"  1911.  25,  "Peanuts, 
Culture  and  Uses,"  1895.  26,  "  Sweet  Potatoes,  Culture  and  Uses,"  1895.  129, 
"  Sweet  Potatoes,  Culture  and  Uses,"  1901.  31,  "  Alfalfa  or  Lucern,"  1895. 
215,  "  Alfalfa  Growing,"  1905.  276,  "  Alfalfa  Culture  in  Eastern  United 
States,"  1907.  339,  "Alfalfa,"  1908.  199,  "  Corn  Growing,"  1904.  36,  "  Cot- 
ton Seed  and  its  Products,"  1896.  37,  "  Kafir  Corn,"  1896  (see  also  Bulletin 
73).  552,  "Kafir  as  a  Grain  Crop,"  1913.  50,  "Sorghum  as  a  Forage 
Crop,"  1897.  58,  "  The  Soybean  as  a  Forage  Crop,"  1897.  372,  "  Soy- 
beans," 1909.  66,  "  Meadows  and  Pastures,"  1897.  86,  "  Thirty  Poison- 
ous Plants,"  1898.  89,  "  Cowpeas,"  1899.  318,  "  Cowpeas,"  1908.  101, 
"Millets,"  1899.  168,  "Pearl  Millet,"  1903.  108,  "Salt  Bushes,"  1900. 
110,  "Rice  Culture  in  the  United  States,"  1900.  139,  "Emmer:  A  Grain 
for  the  Semi-arid  Regions,"  1901.  466,  "Winter  Emmer,"  1911.  167, 
"  Cassava,"  1903.  224,  "  Canadian  Field  Peas,"  1905.  246,  "  Saccharine, 
Sorghums  for  Forage,"  1906.  458,  "The  Two  Best  Sweet  Sorghums  for 
Forage,"  1911.  288,  "The  Non-saccharine  Sorghums,"  1907.  322,  "  Milo 
as  a  Dry  Land  Grain  Crop,"  1908.  448,  "  Better  Grain — Sorghum  Crops," 

1911.  356,  "Peanuts,"  1908.     431,  "The  Peanut,"  1911.     361,  "Meadow 
Fescue,    its    Culture    and    Uses,"    1909.      362,    "Conditions    Affecting    the 
Market  Value  of  Hay,"  1909.     508,  "Market  Hay,"  1912.     402,  "Canada 
Blue  Grass,  its  Uses  and  Culture,"   1910.     420,  "Oats,  Distribution  and 
Uses,"  1910.     427,  "  Barley  Culture  in  the  Southern  States,"   1910.     518, 
"Winter  Barley,"   1912.     441,  "  Lespedeza  or  Japan  Clover,"   1911.     455, 
"Red  Clover,"   1911.     485,  "Sweet  Clover,"  1912.     550,  "Crimson  Clover. 
Growing  the  Crop,"  1913.     515,  "  Vetches,"  1912.     529,  "  Vetch  Growing  in 
the  South  Atlantic  States,"   1913.     483,  "The  Thornless  Prickly  Pears," 

1912.  502,  "  Timothy  Production  on  Irrigated  Land  in  the  Northwest." 
509,  "  Forage  Crops  for  the  Cotton  Region,"  1912.    271,  "  Forage  Crop  Prac- 
tices in  Western  Oregon  and  Western  Washington,"   1906.     331,  '•  Forage 
Crops  for  Hogs  in  Kansas  and  Oklahoma,"  1908.     534,  "  Durum  Wheat," 
1913. 

12  Farmers'  Bulletin  36. 
12 


178  DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 

Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  Bulletins  4,  "  Range  Improvement  in  Arizona," 
1902.  15,  "  Forage  Conditions  on  the  Northern  Border  of  the  Great  Basin," 
1902.  31,  "  Cultivated  Forage  Crops  of  the  Northwestern  States,"  1902.  38, 
"  Forage  Conditions  and  Problems  in  Eastern  Washington  and  Oregon,  and 
Northwestern  California  and  Nevada,"  1903.  59,  "  Pasture,  Meadow,  and 
Forage  Crops  in  Nebraska,"  1904.  67,  "  Range  Investigations  in  Arizona," 
1904. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  the  main  cereal  grains  used  for  feeding  farm  animals? 

2.  Give  the  classes  of  animals  to  which  each  kind  is  preferably  fed;  their 

average  chemical  composition  and  relative  feeding  values. 

3.  What  per  cent  of  hulls  do  oats  generally  contain,  and  in  what  way  are 

the  hulls  of  importance  in  feeding  farm  animals  ? 

4.  What  is  "  ground  feed,"  and  to  which  classes  of  animals  is  it  generally 

fed? 

5.  What  are  grain  screenings?     State  under  what  conditions  they  may  be 

safely  used,  and  what  disadvantages  are  incident  to  their  use. 

6.  Give  the  different  kinds  of  sorghums  used  for  feeding  farm  animals,  and 

the  special  points  in  their  favor. 

7.  Name  the  leguminous  seeds  used  for  stock  feeding,  and  give  their  average 

composition  and  relative  value  in  comparison  with  the  cereal  grains. 

8.  What  oil-bearing  seeds  are  used  for  stock  feeding,  and  under  what  condi- 

tions are  they  used? 


CHAPTER  XVII 
VARIOUS  FACTORY  BY-PRODUCTS 

I.  FLOUR  AND  CEREAL  MILL  FEEDS 

IN  the  manufacture  of  flour  or  cereal  products  (breakfast  foods) 
a  large  number  of  by-products  are  obtained  that  are  of  the  highest 
value  for  stock  feeding. 

The  flour-mill  feeds  are  well-known  by-products  that  have  long 
been  standard  feeding  stuffs  in  all  parts  of  the  country  where  live- 
stock are  kept.  These  are  bran,  middlings  or  shorts,  and  low- 
grade  feeding  flour.  A  brief  statement  of  the  minute  structure  of 
the  wheat  kernel  will  make  clear  the  characteristic  differences  in 
these  by-products. 

The  wheat  berry  is  covered  by  three  different  coatings  of  tough, 
thick-walled  cells,  which  contain  a  considerable  proportion  of  fiber 
and  but  little  starch.  Directly  beneath  the  innermost  seed-coat  is 
a  layer  of  cells,  very  rich  in  protein,  called  the  aleurone  layer; 
inside  of  this  is  the  soft  white  portion  (endosperm)  of  the  berry, 
made  up  of  cells  largely  filled  with  starch  grains.  These  also  con- 
tain protein  substances,  known  under  the  name  of  gluten  (gliadin 
and  glutenin,  see  p.  9).  Within  the  inner  starchy  portion  of  the 
berry  is  found  the  germ  containing  the  embryo  of  the  wheat  plant. 
The  following  figures  show  the  approximate  proportion  of  the  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  wheat  berry,  according  to  Bessey : 

Coatings  or  bran  layers  ...     5  per  cent 

Aleurone  layer 3  to  4  per  cent 

Starch  cells    84  to  86  per  cent 

Germ   6  per  cent 

Wheat  is  the  main  bread  grain  in  this  country.  In  the  manu- 
facture of  flour  the  wheat  is  first  passed  over  a  series  of  screens 
which  remove  the  impurities  contained  therein,  such  as  weed  seeds, 
chaff,  etc.  (p.  170) .  It  is  then  scoured,  and,  after  being  heated  some- 
what, is  run  through  a  series  of  rollers,  set  at  decreasing  distances 
apart,  so  that  the  kernels  are  gradually  broken  into  smaller  and 
smaller  pieces.  The  fine  floury  portion  formed  is  separated  after 
each  "break,"  and  the  tough  outer  seed-coats  are 'thus  gradually 
freed  from  adhering  flour  and  make  up  the  bran.  The  aim  of  the 
miller  is  to  obtain  all  the  starch  cells  and  gluten  possible  from  the 

179 


180  DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 

wheat,  and  to  avoid  the  germ  and  the  bran,  including  the  aleurone 
layer,  which  would  give  an  undesirable  yellow  tinge  to  the  flour 
and  lower  its  keeping  quality.  There  are  considerable  differences 
in  the  nomenclature  of  mill  feeds  adopted  by  millers  in  different 
sections  of  the  country,  but  the  more  common  terms  recognized  by 
the  trade  are  wheat  bran,  shorts  or  standard  middlings,  white 
middlings,  and  red-dog  flour. 

Wheat  bran  is  rich  in  protein  and  fat,  and  also  in  fiber,  the 
average  percentages  of  these  components  being  about  15,  4,  and 
10  per  cent,  respectively.  Its  digestibility  is  lower  than  that  of 
the  cereals,  viz.,  dry  matter  66  per  cent,  protein  77  per  cent,  fiber 
41  per  cent,  nitrogen-free  extract  71  per  cent,  fat  63  per  cent, 
making  the  percentage  of  digestible  components : 

Protein  11.9  per  cent, 

Carbohydrates  and  fat  47.6  per  cent  (N.E.,  1:4.0). 

Bran  is  rich  in  mineral  matter,  and  contains  about  80  per  cent 
of  the  phosphorus  of  the  wheat  berry;  hence,  it  is  very  valuable  as 
a  source  of  this  important  element  in  feeding  young,  growing,  or 
milk-producing  animals.  The  ash  is  relatively  poor  in  lime;  in 
feeding  wheat  bran  to  the  animals,  it  should,  therefore,  be  supple- 
mented by  hay  of  legumes,  which  is  especially  rich  in  this  com- 
ponent. Wheat  bran  also  contains  6  to  8  per  cent  of  the  organic 
phosphorus  compound  phytin,  to  which,  constituent  it  largely  owes 
its  laxative  properties. 

The  wheat  bran  on  the  market  is  of  two  kinds :  Country  mill 
bran  and  roller  or  flaky  bran.  The  former  kind  comes  from  small 
flour  mills  which  do  not  have  the  perfect  machinery  for  the  separa- 
tion of  starch-cells  from  the  seed-coats  that  is  found  in  large  roller 
mills ;  this  bran  is,  therefore,  higher  in  starch  and  lower  in  protein 
and  fiber  than  roller  bran.  The  value  of  the  two  kinds  for  feeding 
purposes  will  depend  largely  on  the  combinations  in  which  it  is  fed, 
and  the  kind  of  animals  fed.  While  roller  bran  supplies  more 
protein  than  does  country  mill  bran,  its  digestibility  is  likely  to  be 
somewhat  lower  on  account  of  its  larger  fiber  content.  The  differ- 
ences in  the  nutritive  values  of  the  two  kinds  of  bran  are,  in  general, 
small,  however,  making  it  advisable,  in  case  both  kinds  are  avail- 
able, to  select  whichever  can  be  obtained  at  the  lower  price. 

Wheat  bran  is  often  high-priced  in  comparison  with  other  de- 
sirable concentrates,  and  farmers  should  study  the  market  prices 
of  different  feeds  and  the  feed  bulletins  issued  by  the  various  ex- 
periment stations  so  as  to  be  able  to  take  advantage  of  low  market 
prices  for  other  feeds  that  may  serve  their  purpose  equally  well. 


VARIOUS  FACTORY  BY-PRODUCTS  181 

The  fact  that  wheat  bran  is  a  common  and  valuable  dairy  feed 
should  not  lead  feeders  to  believe  that  it  is  indispensable  and  must 
be  bought  at  any  price.  It  is  often  possible  to  buy  other  equally 
valuable  concentrates  at  a  lower  cost. 

Bran  is  especially  valuable  for  feeding  stock  that  requires  a 
liberal  supply  of  protein  and  mineral  matter  in  their  rations  and 
are  able  to  digest  bulky  feeds;  on  account  of  its  coarseness  it  is 
well  adapted  for  use  with  heavy  feeds  like  corn  meal,  buckwheat 
middlings,  oil  meal,  etc. 

Middlings  or  shorts  are  well  suited  to  the  use  of  young  animals 
that  do  not  do  well  on  bran,  like  pigs  and  calves.  They  are  espe- 
cially valuable  for  feeding  these  classes  of  animals,  and  are  always 
mixed  with  other. feeds,  like  corn  meal,  ground  oats  or  barley,  oil 
meal,  etc.,  when  so  used.  They  contain,  as  a  rule,  about  17  per 
cent  protein,  5  per  cent  fat,  and  less  than  8  per  cent  fiber. 

Red-dog  flour,  or  dark  feeding  flour,  is  rich  in  starch,  protein, 
and  fat,  containing,  on  the  average,  about  18  per  cent  protein,  4.5 
per  cent  fat,  and  over  60  per  cent  nitrogen-free  extract;  its  fiber 
content  is  generally  below  2  per  cent.  The  high  percentages  of 
protein  and  fat  contained  in  red  dog  are  due  to  the  presence  therein 
of  the  rich  wheat  germs  which  generally  go  into  this  by-product. 
It  is,  therefore,  a  more  valuable  feed  than  the  best  grades  of 
middlings,  and  is  also  somewhat  higher  in  price.  Besides  for 
feeding  young  animals,  calves,  and  pigs,  red-dog  flour  is  used  in 
foundry  work,  to  prevent  the  mold  from  adhering  to  the  castings. 

White  middlings  or  flour  middlings  are  composed  of  a  mixture 
of  standard  middlings  and  red-dog  flour,  and  have  an  intermediate 
composition  and  feeding  value  between  these  feeds. 

Adulterated  Wheat  Feeds. — As  a  rule,  the  wheat  feeds  on  the 
market  are  pure  feeds,  or  free  from  serious  adulterations,  although 
of  greatly  varying  quality.  Adulterations  with  ground  cornstalks, 
ground  corn  cobs,  cedar  sawdust,  oat  hulls,  and  weed  seeds  have, 
however,  been  identified  in  commercial  samples  in  the  past.1  The 
only  common  adulteration  of  wheat  bran  and  other  wheat  feeds 
is  the  admixture  of  whole  or  ground  grain  screenings.  If  finely 
ground,  the  screenings  are,  as  a  rule,  rather  unobjectionable,  since 
the  weed  seeds  contain  considerable  amounts  of  nutrients,  but 
the  whole  screenings  make  a  very  undesirable  adulteration,  on  ac- 
count of  the  danger  of  fouling  the  farm  land  with  weeds  by  their 
use.  One  of  the  most  striking  recent  examples  of  this  danger  that 

1  Wisconsin  Bulletin  97,  p.  30;  U.  S.  Notice  of  Judgment,  66,  67,  and 
2387. 


182  DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 

has  come  to  the  author's  notice  was  presented  by  a  sample  of  wheat 
bran  examined  in  the  feed-control  work  in  Wisconsin.2  The  anal- 
ysis showed  that  1413  whole  seeds  were  found  in  10  grams  (or 
less  than  one-third  ounce)  of  the  bran,  and  the  weed  seeds  made 
up  over  10  per  cent  of  the  weight  of  the  sample.  The  number 
given  represents  over  128,000,000  weed  seeds  in  a  ton,  which 
would  be  distributed  on  the  land  with  manure  and,  to  a  large  ex- 
tent, be  ready  to  germinate  the  first  season.  By  taking  up  space 
and  plant  food  that  should  be  used  by  farm  crops,  the  weeds  grown 
from  the  seeds  would  decrease  the  production  of  the  land  and 
would  also  increase  the  cost  of  growing  the  crops  (p.  171). 

The  feed  laws  of  the  various  States  require  that  bran  (or  mid- 
lings)  containing  screenings  must  be  sold  as  "wheat  bran  (or 
wheat  middlings)  mixed  with  screenings,"  and  a  statement  of  the 
percentage  contained  therein  is  also  required  in  some  cases. 

Oat  Feeds. — The  by-products  in  the  manufacture  of  oatmeal 
are  similar  to  those  obtained  at  the  flour  mills,  except  for  the 
differences  in  the  structure  of  the  oat  kernel.  Oats  consist  of  a 
kernel  and  a  hull  which  are  easily  separated.  The  former  is  high 
in  starch,  protein,  and  fat;  the  latter  is  low  in  all  those  com- 
ponents, and  high  in  fiber,  hence  has  a  very  low  feeding  value. 
As  previously  shown,  the  hulls  make  up  about  one-third  of  f the 
oat  kernel,  on  the  average,  and  contain  30  to  over  40  per  cent  fiber 
and  only  about  3  per  cent  protein. 

The  hairy  tips  on  the  oats  are  separated  in  the  manufacture  of 
oatmeal,  after  the  kernels  are  hulled,  and  make  up  the  by-product 
sold  as  oat  dust.  The  only  other  refuse  feed  obtained  in  oat  mills 
is  oat  shorts  or  middlings  (often  sold  as  oat  feed). 

Oat  dust  contains  considerable  protein  (13.5  per  cent),  fat  (4.8 
per  cent),  and  other  valuable  feed  components,  with  about  18  per 
cent  fiber.  It  is,  therefore,  a  feed  of  some  importance,  although  its 
light,  fluffy  mechanical  condition  makes  it  difficult  to  feed  except 
in  mixtures  with  heavy  concentrates. 

Oat  shorts  or  middlings  are  the  richest  of  the  by-products  from 
oats,  and  correspond  closely  to  wheat  middlings  in  chemical  com- 
position, with  a  somewhat  higher  fat  content  than  this  feed. 

Oat  feed  contains  ground  oat  hulls  with  shorts  or  middlings ;  it 
should  be  bought  only  on  a  definite  guarantee  of  its  composition, 
including  maximum  fiber  content.  The  oat  feeds  on  the  market 
differ  greatly  in  composition  and  feeding  value,  according  to  the 

2  Circular  30,  p.  79 ;  see  also  Circular  97  of  the  same  station,  and  Ver- 
mont Bulletin  138. 


VARIOUS  FACTORY  BY-PRODUCTS  183 

condition  of  the  feed  market  and  the  integrity  of  the  manufacturer. 
Oat  hulls  are  frequently  ground  and  used  as  adulterants  for  ground 
corn  and  oats,  or  oat  feeds  (p.  168).  Unless  present  in  excessive 
quantities,  the  true  quality  of  these  feeds  can  be  determined  only 
by  chemical  analysis,  and  it  is  not  safe,  therefore,  to  buy  such  feeds 
except  on  a  guarantee,  and  of  reputable  feed  dealers  or  manu- 
facturers. 

Barley  Feed. — In  the  manufacture  of  pearl  barley  or  barley 
flour  only  one  by-product  is  obtained,  which  is  sold  under  the  name 
of  barley  feed  or  meal.  It  resembles  wheat  bran  closely  in  com- 
position, except  that  it  contains  a  somewhat  higher  percentage  of 
nitrogen-free  extract  and  less  fiber.  The  two  feeds  may,  in  general, 
be  considered  of  similar  feeding  value. 

Rye  Feeds. — Rye  is  used  in  this  country  mainly  in  the  manu- 
facture of  spirits  and  for  feeding  livestock;  the  manufacture  of 
rye  flour  is  a  relatively  unimportant  industry.  The  refuse  from 
rye  mills  is  sold  either  as  rye  feed  or  as  two  separate  feeds,  rye  bran 
and  rye  middlings.  The  process  of  manufacture  is  similar  to  that 
of  the  wheat  feeds.  Rye  feed  contains,  on  the  average,  about  15.5 
per  cent  protein,  0.3  per  cent  fat,  and  5  per  cent  fiber.  It  is, 
therefore,  considerably  lower  in  fiber  than  wheat  bran,  but  other- 
wise quite  similar  in  composition  to  this  feed.  It  is  often  sold  at  a 
lower  price  than  wheat  bran,  and  is  then  an  economical  feed,  well 
worthy  of  a  trial  for  feeding  dairy  cows  or  pigs.  It  should  be  fed 
in  moderate  amounts  to  pigs,  as  it  will  otherwise  produce  a  soft 
pork  of  inferior  quality.  In  Germany  rye  feed  is  considered  a 
more  valuable  feeding  stuff  than  wheat  bran,  as  it  is  believed  to 
be  more  easily  digested  and  more  nutritious.3  This  may  be  due  to 
the  fact  that  rye  and  rye  feed  contain  a  large  amount  of  diastase, 
which  is  found  in  only  small  amounts  in  wheat  bran.  There  are 
also  marked  differences  in  the  protein  substances  of  the  two  cereals, 
the  most  important  one  being  that  rye  contains  no  glutenin,  which, 
with  gliadin,  forms  the  main  protein  substance  of  wheat. 

Buckwheat  Feeds. — Buckwheat  flour  mills  supply  the  feed 
market  with  three  or  four  by-products,  viz.,  buckwheat  hulls,  bran, 
middlings,  and  feed.  Buckwheat  hulls  are  the  coarse,  black  cover- 
ing of  the  buckwheat  kernels,  which  are  readily  separated  there- 
from. They  have  practically  no  feeding  value  whatever,  although, 
if  finely  ground,  they  may  serve  a  purpose  as  dilutant  of  heavy 
feeds,  like  corn  meal  or  buckwheat  middlings.  The  hulls  contain 

3  Pott,  "  Landw.  Futtermittel,"  3,  ii,  p.  164. 


184 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 


about  4  per  cent  protein,  less  than  1  per  cent  fat,  nearly  50  per  cent 
fiber,  and  36  per  cent  nitrogen-free  extract.  Buckwheat  feed  means 
the  entire  refuse  obtained  in  the  manufacture  of  buckwheat  flour, 
and  contains  ordinarily  one-half  to  two-thirds  of  hulls,  the  balance 
being  made  up  of  the  heavy,  floury  portion  of  the  buckwheat  grain 
immediately  inside  of  the  hulls,  known  as  middlings  or  shorts. 
Buckwheat  feed  composed  of  one-half  middlings  and  one-half  hulls 
will  contain  about  15.7  per  cent  protein  and  24  per  cent  fiber,  and 
one  containing  one-third  middlings  and  two-third  hulls  about  12 
per  cent  protein  and  30  per  cent  fiber.4  A  study  of  the  digestible 
components  furnished  by  this  feed  and  by  wheat  bran  would  lead  to 
the  conclusion  that  a  good  quality  of  buckwheat  feed  (containing 
not  much  over  one-half  hulls,  by  weight)  is  worth  about  20  per 
cent  less  than  wheat  bran.  Buckwheat  middlings  are  a  very  valu- 
able and- rich  feed,  containing  about  28  per  cent  crude  protein  and 
7  per  cent  fat,  with  only  4  to  6  per  cent  fiber.  It  is  highly  prized  as 
a  feed  for  dairy  cows,  but  cannot  often  be  obtained  as  a  separate 
article  of  commerce;  most  millers  sell  their  entire  amount  of  refuse 
as  buckwheat  feed. 

Corn  Feeds.— The  corn  kernel  (Fig.  36)  consists  of  five  dif- 
ferent parts:  An  outer  and  an  inner  layer  of  skin  or  hull,  a  layer 
of  gluten  cells,  the  germ,  and  the  main  starchy  part  (endosperm), 
some  of  which  is  hard  and  flinty,  and  some  soft.  The  New  Jersey 
station5  made  analyses  of  the  different  parts  of  the  corn  kernel 
and  determined  the  approximate  proportion  of  each,  with  results 
as  shown  in  the  table. 

Composition  of  Dry  Substance  of  Corn  Kernel,  in  Per  Cent 


Ash 

Protein 

Fiber 

Nitrogen- 
free 
extract 

Fat 

Propor- 
tion of 
parts 

Entire  kernel 

1  7 

126 

20 

794 

43 

100 

Skin  (hull) 

1.3 

66 

164 

74  1 

1  6 

55 

Germ  .    . 

11  1 

21.7 

2.9 

247 

296 

102 

Starchy  and  flinty  part  .  .  . 

.7 

12.2 

.6 

85.0 

1.5 

84.3 

The  most  striking  part  of  the  data  shown  in  the  table  is  the 
high  protein,  fat,  and  ash  contents  of  the  corn  germ.  This  con- 
tains 65  per  cent  of  the  total  fat  in  the  kernel,  16  per  cent  of  the 
protein,  and  62  per  cent  of  the  ash  (71  per  cent  of  the  phosphoric- 

4  Wisconsin  Bulletin  170,  p.  76. 

5  Bulletin  105 ;  see  also  Illinois  Bulletin  87. 


VARIOUS  FACTORY  BY-PRODUCTS 


185 


acid  content).  The  hulls  (skin)  contain  very  nearly  one-half  of 
the  total  fiber,  and  the  starchy  part  about  90  per  cent  of  the  total 
nitrogen-free  extract  of  the  kernel. 

The  only  by-products  of  corn  or  hominy  mills  used  for  feeding 
farm  animals  are  corn  bran  and  hominy  meal.  Both  of  these  are 
obtained  by  similar  manufacturing  processes  as  those  given  under 
wheat  feeds.  The  corn  bran  does  not  differ  greatly  from  wheat 
bran  in  chemical  composition;  it  is  lower  in  ash  and  protein,  and 
somewhat  higher  in  carbohydrates  and  fiber,  however;  its  digesti- 
bility is  slightly  higher  than  that  of  wheat  bran,  except  for  the 
protein  it  contains,  which  is  consider- 
ably lower,  viz.,  54  per  cent,  against 
77  per  cent  for  wheat  bran.  The  two 
feeds  may,  in  general,  be  considered 
of  similar  feeding  value,  in  so  far  as 
it  is  possible  to  compare  the  feeding 
values  of  two  feeds  of  as  different  nu- 
tritive ratios. 

Hominy  meal,  feed  or  chop,  con- 
sists of  the  bran?  germ,  and  soft  floury 
portion  of  the  kernel  which  are  sepa- 
rated in  the  process  of  making  hominy 
grits  for  human  consumption.  It 
forms  a  very  valuable,  palatable,  fat- 
tening feed,  of  a  similar  composition  to 
Indian  corn,  the  main  difference  being 
that  it  is  higher  in  fat  and  lower  in  nitrogen-free  extract  than  is 
Indian  corn,  and  also  somewhat  higher  in  fiber,  as  will  be  seen 
from  the  following  average  analyses : 

Chemical  Composition  and  Digestibility  of  Hominy  Meal,  in  Per  Cent 


FIG.    36. — Section   of    corn    kernel. 
("Productive  Farming,"  Davis.) 


Dry 

matter 

Protein 

Fat 

Fiber 

Nitrogen- 
free 
extract 

Ash 

Total  components  
Digestion  coefficients  .... 

90.4 

82 

10.5 
65 

8.0 
92 

4.9 
67 

64.3 

89 

_  j 

2.7 

Digestible  components  .  .  . 

74.1 

6.8 

7.4 

6 

3.5 

Digestible  components  in 

corn  

81.4 

7.8 

4.3 

6 

3.8 

Hominy  meal  is  a  highly  valued  feed  for  milch  cows  and  fatten- 
ing steers,  and  may  serve  a  useful  purpose  as  a  substitute  for  Indian 
corn  in  rations  for  these  and  other  farm  animals.  Like  all  corn 


186 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 


products,  it  is  of  rather  uniform  quality  and  free  from  adultera- 
tions. 

Rice  By-products. — In  the  milling  of  rice  several  by-products 
are  obtained  which  are  used  for  stock  feeding.  The  rice  grains 
are  covered  by  two  layers :  The  outer  coat,  a  hard,  chaffy  husk  which 
is  easily  removed,  and  the  inner  coat,  a  closely-fitting  cuticle  or 
skin.  The  removal  of  these  coatings  and  the  manufacture  of 
marketable  rice  are  done  by  three  operations:  Husking,  hulling, 
and  polishing.  Husking  is  accomplished  by  passing  the  rice  be- 
tween revolving  millstones,  which  are  set  far  enough  apart  to 
crack  the  hull  and  allow  the  rice  -to  fall  out  without  cracking 
it  too  much.  The  hulls  are  not  removed  completely,  there  being 
always  some  grains  which  retain  their  husk.  The  by-product  from 
this  process  is  rice  hulls.  The  rice  is  next  passed  through  one  or 
more  hullers,  which  remove  the  cuticle  or  skin.  The  products  of 
this  machine  are  rice  bran,  some  flour,  and  clean  rice.  The  final 
process  consists  in  polishing  the  rice,  which  is  done  in  a  special 
machine  and  gives  the  rice  its  lustre.  The  by-product  from  this 
process  is  a  finely-powdered  material,  known  as  rice  polish.  Three 
by-products  used  for  stock  feeding  are  thus  obtained  in  these 
processes,  viz.,  rice  hulls,  rice  meal,  and  rice  polish. 

Rice  hulls  are  used  as  a  fuel  at  the  mills  and  for  packing  eggs, 
etc. ;  they  are  also  sometimes  ground  and  sold  as  "  husk  meal "  or 
"  Star  bran,"  or  used  as  an  adulterant  of  rice  bran.  They  are,  how- 
ever, of  no  value  as  a  feed,  and  are,  in  fact,  injurious  to  stock,  being 
provided  with  sharply-pointed  fibers,  which  are  strongly  impreg- 
nated with  silica.  When  taken  into  the  stomach  and  intestines  of  an 
animal  they  provoke  an  intense  irritation  of  the  delicate  membranes 
of  these  tracts,  and  may  cause  impaction  of  the  bowels;  fatalities 
are  on  record  resulting  from  animals  eating  rice  hulls  or  rice  bran 
adulterated  with  hulls.6 

The  average  chemical  composition  of  the  rice  by-products  is 
shown  in  the  following  table: 

Composition  of  Rice  By-products,  in  Per  Cent 


Nitrogen- 

Ash 

Protein 

Fiber 

free 

Fat 

extract 

Rice  hulls  

15.6 

3.2 

36.2 

35.2 

1.0 

Rice  bran  

9.7 

11.9 

12.0 

46.6 

10.1 

Rice  polish 

48 

11  9 

3.3 

62.3 

7.2 

6  Browne,  Louisiana  Planter  and  Sugar  Manufacturer,  June  13,  1903; 
Louisiana  Bulletin  77. 


VARIOUS  FACTORY  BY-PRODUCTS  187 

In  addition  to  the  preceding  by-products,  a  feed  called  "  com- 
mercial rice  bran"  is  obtained  and  sold  in  the  South.  This  is  a 
mixture  of  the  pure  bran  with  varying  amounts  of  hulls,  the  quantity 
of  the  latter  being  sometimes  as  high  as  50  per  cent.  According 
to  the  Texas  station,7  commercial  rice  bran  may  contain  as  low  as 
4  per  cent  of  protein  and  2  per  cent  of  fat,  and  as  high  as  50  per 
cent  of  fiber.  An  addition  of  rice  hulls  decreases  the  feeding  value 
of  bran  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  hulls  added.  Adulteration 
of  rice  bran  with  hulls  has  been  largely  practised  by  southern 
mills,  and  has  brought  the  feed  into  disrepute.  In  view  of  the 
danger  of  such  adulteration,  rice  bran  should  be  purchased  only  of 
reputable  dealers  and  on  guarantees  of  valuable  components  and 
maximum  fiber  content.  It  should  contain  not  less  than  10  per 
cent  protein  and  6  per  cent  fat,  and  not  more  than  20  per  cent  fiber. 

Pure  rice  bran  and  rice  polish  are  both  valuable  feeds  which 
compare  favorably  with  corn  meal  in  feeding  value  and  may  be 
fed  under  similar  conditions.  At  the  Louisiana  station  rice  bran 
was  used  successfully  for  one-half  of  the  concentrates  in  rations  for 
horses  and  mules,  and  it  is  also  a  good  cow  feed,  if  fed  with  high- 
protein  concentrates  and  before  turning  rancid.8 

Rice  polish  is  a  highly  digestible  starchy  feed  which  is  used  as 
a  feed  for  dairy  cows,  fattening  steers,  horses,  and  mules;  its  high 
price  often  makes  it  more  expensive  under  southern  conditions  than, 
e.g.,  cane  molasses  (p.  192). 

The  rice  feeds  will  not  keep  long  before  they  turn  rancid,  on 
account  of  the  unstable  character  of  the  oil  and  the  high  oil  con- 
tent of  these  feeds.  Rancid  rice  feeds  are  not  palatable  to  livestock. 

Test  for  Rice  Hulls. — Pure  rice  bran  and  rice  meal  contain  considerable 
fat  and  are  not  moistened  if  placed  on  the  surface  of  water.  When  the  test 
is  made  with  rice  bran  or  meal  adulterated  with  hulls,  these  will  soon  sink, 
into  the  water. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Describe  the  method  of  manufacture  by  which  flour-mill  feeds  are  obtained 

as  by-products. 

2.  What  are  the  differences  in  composition  and  relative  feeding  value  of 

wheat,  wheat  bran,  wheat  middlings,  and  red-dog  flour  ? 

3.  What  are  the  common  adulterations  of  wheat  feeds,  if  any? 

4.  Describe  the  by-products  obtained  in  the  manufacture  of  cereal  feeds, 

barley,  rye  and  buckwheat  flour. 

5.  Describe  (a)  the  corn  by-products;   (&)  the  rice  by-products. 

C.  Why  are  rice  hulls  a  dangerous  material  to  be  used  for  feeding  farm 
animals  ? 

7  Bulletin  73.  8  Wisconsin  Bulletin  169. 


188  DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 


II.    BREWERY  AND  DISTILLERY  FEEDS 

The  main  feeds  of  this  class  met  with  in  the  trade  are  wet  and 
dried  brewers'  grains,  malt  sprouts,  and  dried  distillers'  grains.  The 
first  three  feeds  are  essentially  barley  products,  while  the  last  feed 
is  made  from  mixed  grains,  largely  rye  and  corn. 

Brewers'  grains  are  the  by-product  obtained  in  the  manu- 
facture of  beer.  The  barley  is  steeped  in  warm  water  and  held 
at  a  warm  temperature  until  it  begins  to  sprout;  by  this  process 
the  starch  content  in  the  grain  is  converted  into  sugar  (maltose), 
through  the  action  of  the  ferment  diastase  found  in  barley.  When 
the  malted  barley  contains  a  maximum  amount  of  sugar  it  is  quickly 
dried.  The  tiny  dry  sprouts  are  then  separated  and  form  the  feed 
called  malt  sprouts,  while  the  remaining  dried  grains  make  what 
is  known  as  malt.  This  is  treated  with  large  quantities  of  water 
to  extract  the  sugar,  ash,  and  other  soluble  components;  the  ex- 
tracted malt  makes  wet  brewers'  grains,  and  these,  on  drying  in 
vacuum,  are  changed  into  dried  brewers'  grains. 

On  account  of  their  large  water  content  (70  to  80  per  cent), 
the  wet  brewers'  grains  must  be  fed  in  the  vicinity  of  breweries  and 
within  a  short  time  after  they  have  been  made.  As  the  starch  of 
the  barley  has  been  largely  removed  by  the  processes  of  malting  and 
brewing,  the  brewers'  grains  are  considerably  richer  in  protein  than 
the  original  grain  and  may  be  considered  fully  as  valuable  a  feed 
for  farm  animals  as  these.  Their  digestibility  is  somewhat  lower 
than  that  of  barley,  for  reasons  easily  seen;  but  fed  either  wet  or 
dry,  the  brewers'  grains  form  a  valuable  feed  for  farm  animals, 
wet  grains  being  especially  adapted  for  milch  cows,  brood  sows,  and 
fattening  swine,  and  dried  grains  for  cattle  and  horses.  When  fed 
in  a  sound,  fresh  condition  and  in  moderate  quantities,  say  twenty 
to  thirty  pounds  per  head  daily,  with  dry  roughage  and  concentrates, 
wet  brewers'  grains  make  an  excellent  feed  for  dairy  cows,  and  can 
often  be  contracted  for  from  local  breweries  at  a  low  price ;  they  may 
be  considered  worth  about  one-fourth  as  much  as  the  dried  grains 
for  feeding  stock. 

Brewers'  grains  have  been  brought  into  disrepute  by  being  fed 
in  excessive  quantities,  without  dry  roughage  and  under  unsanitary 
conditions,  and  their  use  as  a  stock  feed  under  such  conditions  is 
prohibited  in  most  States.  When  the  wet  grains  are  fed  to  dairy 
cows,  care  must  be  taken  to  keep  the  mangers  and  stable  scrupu- 
lously clean,  so  as  to  avoid  filthy  conditions  and  foul  odors  around 


VARIOUS  FACTORY  BY-PRODUCTS  189 

the  premises,  which  will  seriously  affect  the  quality  of  the  milk 
produced  and  the  health  of  the  animals. 

Dried  brewers'  grains  can  be  kept  indefinitely  and  transported 
from  the  place  of  manufacture  like  other  commercial  feeds.  They 
contain,  on  the  average,  20  per  cent  digestible  protein,  32  per  cent 
digestible  carbohydrates,  and  6  per  cent  digestible  fat,  against  11.9 
per  cent,  42.0  per  cent,  and  2.5  per  cent,  respectively,  for  the  same 
components  in  wheat  bran ;  the  two  feeds,  therefore,  contain  similar 
amounts  of  total  digestible  components.  The  brewers'  grains  have 
the  advantage  of  containing  about  twice  as  much  digestible  protein 
and  fat  as  wheat  bran,  but  contain  10  per  cent  less  carbohydrates. 
Dried  brewers'  grains  form  an  excellent  feed  for  cattle  and  horses, 
and  may  be  fed  to  the  former  in  similar  quantities  as.  wheat  bran  or 
small  grains,  while  the  rations  for  horses  may  consist  of  one-third  to 
one-half  of  the  dried  brewers'  grains,  the  balance  being  made  up  of 
corn  and  oats.  Dried  brewers'  grains  will  prove  cheaper  than  oats 
and  quite  as  satisfactory,  especially  for  hard-worked  horses  in  need 
of  an  extra  amount  of  protein.9 

Malt  sprouts  are  the  tiny  dried  germs  of  barley  that  have  been 
allowed  to  grow  to  about  one-fourth  inch  in  length.  They  form  a 
light,  bulky,  and  somewhat  dusty  feed,  containing  about  26  per 
cent  protein  (of  which  one-fourth  to  one-third  is  in  amide  form), 
12  per  cent  of  fiber,  and  less  than  2  per  cent  fat.  On  account  of 
its  tendency  to  dustiness,  the  feed  is  either  fed  mixed  with  other 
concentrates  or  with  silage,  or  is  moistened  before  being  fed  out. 
It  is  especially  valuable  as  a  dairy  feed,  and  may  be  given  in  amounts 
of  two  to  three  pounds  daily  per  cow;  on  acccount  of  bitter  principles 
contained  therein  (betaine  and  choline),  most  cows  object  to  the 
feed  at  first,  but  soon  learn  to  like  it.  It  is  a  common  feed  in  the 
dairy  sections  of  the  country,  and,  as  a  rule,  forms  a  relatively 
cheap  source  of  protein. 

Dried  distillers'  grains  are  the  dried  residues  obtained  in  the 
manufacture  of  alcohol  and  distilled  liquors  from  cereals.  The 
ground  grains  are  treated  with  a  solution  of  malt,  thus  converting 
the  starch  into  sugar  (maltose)  ;  by  the  addition  of  yeast,  the  sugar 
is  changed  into  alcohol,  which  is  distilled  over,  leaving  a  very 
watery  residue,  called  distillers'  slop;  this  is  dried  in  especially- 
constructed  driers  and  sold  as  dried  distillers'  grains.  The  dis- 
tillers' grains  consist  of  the  hulls,  germ,  protein,  and  carbohydrates 
of  minor  nutritive  value,  and  make  a  very  rich  and  valuable  feed 

9  Massachusetts  Bulletin  94. 


190  DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 

for  farm  animals.  The  quality  of  the  grains  will  vary  considerably, 
according  to  the  cereals  used  in  the  manufacture  of  the  distilled 
spirits;  the  larger  the  proportions  of  corn  and  the  smaller  that  of 
rye  and  "malt"  (small  grain,  so-called),  the  higher  the  grade  of 
dried  grains  produced.  The  rye  distillers'  grains  contain  only  30 
per  cent  protein  or  less,  and  are  the  least  valuable  of  the  distillers' 
grains.10  The  protein  in  the  better  grades  may  reach  34  to  36  per 
cent,  with  10  to  12  per  cent  of  fat  or  more.  The  dried  distillers' 
grains  have  a  high  digestibility  and  must  be  classed  among  our 
most  satisfactory  and  economical  protein  feeds,  of  a  value  nearly 
similar  to  oil  meal  when  fed  in  rations  for  dairy  cows.  It  may  be 
fed  in  quantities  of  two  to  four  pounds  per  head  daily,  preferably 
mixed  with  other  concentrates. 

III.  STARCH  AND  GLUCOSE  FACTORY  FEEDS 

Three  feeds  are  obtained  as  by-products  in  the  manufacture  of 
starch  and  glucose  from  Indian  corn,  viz.,  gluten  feed,  gluten  meal, 
and  germ  oil  meal. 

Starch  and  Glucose  Feeds. — In  the  glucose  factory  the  shelled 
corn  is  passed  through  a  cleaning  machine  which  removes  pieces 
of  cob,  dirt,  dust,  etc.  It  is  then  immersed  in  large  steeping  tanks, 
where  it  remains  for  30  to  40  hours  until  the  corn  is  soft.  The 
water  is  next  run  off  and,  in  large  factories,  saved  for  further  treat- 
ment. The  softened  corn  is  coarsely  ground  between  large  mill- 
stones placed  well  apart  so  as  to  break  up  the  kernel  and  set  free 
the  interior  starch  cells.  The  mass  is  now  put  on  sieves  of  fine 
bolting  cloth ;  the  coarse  hulls  and  germs  of  the  corn  remain  on  the 
sieve,  while  starch  and  gluten  go  through — the  latter  two  com- 
ponents are  separated  by  running  the  mixtures  through  a  series  of 
long  troughs  and  into  settling  tanks;  the  starch,  being  heavier, 
sinks  to  the  bottom,  while  the  gluten  and  fat  (oil)  float  on  top 
and  are  skimmed  off  and  dried. 

The  gluten  feed  proper  consists  of  the  hulls  and  undissolved 
starch  remaining  on  the  sieves ;  it  is  dried  and  either  placed  on  the 
market  in  this  condition,  or  after  addition  of  the  gluten,  which  has 
been  previously  extracted  with  naphtha  for  removal  of  most  of  the 
oil  found  therein.  The  steep-water  is  evaporated  in  the  larger 
factories,  and  the  solids  are  added  to  the  gluten  feed.  The  ash  and 
protein  contained  therein  go  to  increase  the  contents  of  these  con- 
stituents in  the  gluten  feed;  on  the  other  hand,  the  palatability 

10  Massachusetts  Bulletin  94. 


VARIOUS  FACTORY  BY-PRODUCTS  191 

and  keeping  quality  of  the  feed  may  be  somewhat  decreased  by  this 
method  of  manufacture.11 

The  gluten  obtained  in  some  factories  is  placed  on  the  market 
as  a  special  feed  called  cream  gluten  meal.  The  corn  germs  are 
generally  kept  separate  and  extracted,  and  the  residue  put  on  the 
market  as  corn  oil  cake,  or,  if  ground,  as  germ  oil  meal. 

The  composition  of  these  various  feeds  put  out  by  different 
manufacturers,  as  well  as  the  nomenclature,  differs  somewhat.  In 
general,  the  gluten  feeds  now  on  the  market  contain  about  25  per 
cent  protein,  4  per  cent  fat,  and  8  per  cent  fiber.  The  ash  content 
is  about  4  per  cent,  in  the  case  of  feed  to  which  the  solids  in  the 
steep-water  have  been  added;  and,  otherwise,  less  than  1  per  cent. 
Gluten  meal,  on  the  other  hand,  contains  about  35  per  cent  protein 
and  less  than  10  per  cent  fat.  Germ  oil  meal  has  a  protein  content 
about  11  per  cent  and  a  fat  content  of  6  per  cent.  The  digestibility 
of  all  these  feeds  is  nearly  as  high  as  that  of  Indian  corn.12 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Describe  the  methods  of  manufacture  by  which  brewers'  grains,  malt 

sprouts,  and  distillers'  grains  are  obtained. 

2.  What  are  the  characteristic  properties  of  these  feeds  ? 

3.  Give  the  method  of  manufacture  of  starch-  and  glucose-factory  feeds. 

4.  State  their  value  for  feeding  farm  animals. 

11  Wisconsin  Circular  47,  p.  72.  12  Wisconsin  Report,  1896,  p.  92. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
SUGAR  FACTORY  FEEDS  AND  OIL  MEALS 

I.    SUGAR  FACTORY  FEEDS 

Sugar  is  manufactured  on  a  large  scale  in  this  country  from  two 
agricultural  crops,  sugar  beets  and  sugar  cane.  The  former  crop 
furnished  the  raw  material  for  about  70  per  cent  of  the  sugar  manu- 
factured here  during  1913-1914.  The  cane-sugar  industry  is  lo- 
cated in  the  South,  practically  all  cane-sugar  manufactured  in  the 
United  States  being  made  in  Louisiana.  The  beet-sugar  factories, 
on  the  other  hand,  are  located  in  the  northern  and  western  States, 
the  States  leading  in  this  industry  being  Colorado,  California,  and 
Michigan.  The  by-products  of  importance  as  stock  feeds  are  cane 
and  beet  molasses,  and  beet  pulp,  which  is  fed  either  wet  or  dried. 

Molasses  is  the  non-crystallizable  residue  obtained  in  the  treat- 
ment and  evaporation  of  the  sweet  juice  of  sugar  beets  or  cane. 

The  beet  molasses  is  composed  of  about  20  per  cent  moisture, 
9  per  cent  protein  (largely  amides  and  nitrates),  and  60  per  cent 
nitrogen-free  extract,  which  is  almost  wholly  sugar,  and  at  least 
two-thirds  sucrose,  the  rest  being  composed  of  glucose,  raffinose, 
organic  acids,  pentosans,  etc.  Beet  molasses  contains  about  10  per 
cent  of  ash,  largely  potash  and  soda.  It  forms  a  thick,  salty,  not 
particularly  sweet  liquid,  which  is  very  laxative  on  account  of  its 
content  of  alkali  salts  and  organic  acids,  and  must,  therefore,  be 
fed  sparingly  to  farm  animals.  In  feeding  beet  molasses  it  is 
generally  mixed  with  three  to  four  times  its  proportion  of  warm 
water  and  sprinkled  on  the  hay,  cut  straw,  or  other  roughage.  It 
is  also  used  in  the  manufacture  of  molasses  feeds  with  different 
absorbents,  such  as  dried  brewers'  grains,  malt  sprouts,  alfalfa  meal, 
ground  grain  screenings,  pea  meal,  ground  cobs,  wheat  bran,  and 
other  materials.  The  value  of  these  feeds  differs  greatly,  according 
to  the  character  of  the  absorbent  used.  If  good  feed  materials  enter 
into  their  manufacture  and  the  price  of  the  feeds  do  not  go  too  high 
in  comparison  with  other  concentrates,  they  may  be  considered 
well  worth  a  trial.  Beet  molasses  is  used  in  some  factories  for  the 
manufacture  of  molasses  beet  pulp  (see  p.  195).  It  may  be  fed  in 
192 


SUGAR  FACTORY  FEEDS  AND  OIL  MEALS  193 

limited  quantities  to  all  classes  of  farm  animals,  except,  perhaps,  to 
pigs ;  according  to  reports  by  the  Cornell1  and  Utah  stations,2  it  is 
injurious  as  a  swine  feed  and  likely  to  produce  a  poor  quality  of 
pork. 

Cane  molasses  (black-strap  molasses)  differs  from  beet  molasses 
mainly  in  the  composition  of  the  non-nitrogenous  constituents  and 
in  its  smaller  protein  and  ash  contents.  Unlike  beet  molasses,  it 
has  a  sweet  taste  and  is  greatly  relished  by  farm  animals.  It  is 
fed  largely  in  the  South  to  horses,  mules,  and  fattening  steers. 
According  to  the  Louisiana  station,3  horses  and  mules  on  many 
sugar  plantations  in  the  State  are  fed  as  much  as  10  pounds  black- 
strap daily,  per  head,  with  excellent  results,  both  as  to  the  cost  of 
the  ration  and  its  effect  on  the  health  of  the  animals  and  their 
working  capacity.  The  Massachusetts  station  found  that  one  gal- 
lon (12  pounds)  of  molasses  makes  a  good  carbohydrate  feed  for 
horses;  a  similar  amount  may  be  fed  to  fattening  steers  as  a 
maximum  allowance.4  Cane  molasses  is  especially  valuable  on 
account  of  its  high  sugar  content  and  its  palatability ;  it  serves  a 
useful  purpose  as  an  appetizer  and  for  utilizing  low-grade  ma- 
terials for  stock  feeding.  It  is  often  used  for  preparing  animals 
for  shows  and  sales,  as  it  gives  them  a  thrifty  appearance  and  a 
smooth,  shiny  coat.  It  should  be  fed  only  in  moderate  amounts  for 
breeding  animals. 

Beet  pulp  is  obtained  in  large  quantities  as  a  by-product  at  beet- 
sugar  factories.  The  carefully-cleaned  beets  are  cut  into  thin,  V- 
shaped  sections,  and  the  sugar  contained  therein  is  extracted  by  the 
so-called  diffusion  process  by  treatment  with  warm  water  in  a 
battery  of  especially-constructed  diffusion  cells.  The  juice  thus 
obtained  is  purified  with  lime  and  sulfur  dioxide  and  evaporated 
until  the  sugar  begins  to  crystallize  out.  Molasses  is  obtained  as 
a  residue  after  the  crystallizable  sugar  (sucrose)  has  been  removed 
so  far  as  possible.  The  extracted  beet  pulp,  as  it  comes  from  the 
diffusion  cells,  contains  80  to  over  90  per  cent  water  and  only  a 
small  amount  of  sugar  (1  to  2  per  cent).  It  is,  however,  relatively 
high  in  other  carbohydrates,  and  has  been  found  to  have  about  the 
same  feeding  value  as  beets,  per  unit  of  dry  matter  contained  in 
both.  Its  feeding  value  may  be  considered  one-half  that  of  corn 
silage.  The  Colorado  station  found  that  two  tons  of  pulp  are  equiva- 
lent to  one  ton  of  roots  in  feeding  value ;  this  confirms  the  result 

1  Bulletin  199.         2  Bulletin  101.  3  Bulletin  86. 

4  Texas  Bulletin  97;  see  also  Massachusetts  Bulletin  118. 
13 


194  DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 

of  a  trial  at  the  Nebraska  station  showing  beets  to  be  practically 
of  a  similar  value  as  corn  silage  for  dairy  cows.  On  account  of  its 
high  water  content,  wet  pulp  cannot  be  shipped  far  from  the  sugar 
factories,  and  it  must,  therefore,  either  be  fed  at  or  near  the  factory 
as  wet  pulp  or  beet  pulp  silage  (p.  161),  or  it  is  dried  in  an  espe- 
cially-constructed large  drier  at  the  factory  and  placed  on  the  market 
as  dried  beet  pulp.  Ten  to  fourteen  tons  of  wet  pulp  will  make  one 
ton  of  dried  pulp.5 

The  wet  pulp  is  an  excellent  feed  for  dairy  cows,  sheep,  and 
steers.  As  it  is  produced  in  large  quantities  and  fed  at  the  fac- 
tories, it  is  often  fed  too  heavily  for  best  results,  sometimes  without 
dry  roughage  or  grain  feed.  Not  more  than  about  100  pounds  per 
1000  pounds  body  weight  should  be  given  daily. 

Siloed  or  cured  pulp  is  made  in  large  quantities  near  sugar 
factories  and  generally  fed  there.  It  may  be  fed  in  quantities 
similar  to  fresh  pulp,  and  always  with  dry  roughage,  preferably 
alfalfa  hay  or  other  leguminous  hay.  In  a  feeding  experiment 
conducted  by  the  California  station6  1000-pound  steers,  each  eat- 
ing 103.5  pounds  cured  pulp  and  15  pounds  of  cut  alfalfa  hay, 
gained  2 A  pounds  a  day,  on  the  average,  for  a  period  of  70  days, 
and  steers,  on  a  ration  of  108  pounds  cured  pulp,  12.1  pounds  rye 
grass  hay,  and  2  pounds  ground  horse  beans,  gained  2.5  pounds  a 
day  during  the  same  period.  Milch  cows  cannot  be  fed  safely  over 
one-half  of  this  amount  of  siloed  pulp  without  the  quality  of  the 
milk  suffering  therefrom,  both  as  to  composition  and  as  a  food  for 
infants;  fed  up  to  this  limit  and  always  with  dry  roughage  and 
grain,  it  makes  an  excellent  feed  for  dairy  cows. 

Dried  beet  pulp  is  a  valuable  feed  for  dairy  cows,  steers,  and 
sheep,  and,  to  a  limited  extent,  for  other  farm  animals  as  well. 
It  is  a  highly  starchy  feed,  containing  about  60  per  cent  nitrogen- 
free  extract,  17.5  per  cent  fiber  and  8  per  cent  protein;  it  con- 
tains 4.1  per  cent  digestible  protein  and  64.9  per  cent  carbohydrates 
(N.  R.?  1 :  15.8).  Dried  pulp  may  be  fed  safely  in  large  quantities 
to  fattening  steers,  dairy  cows,  and  sheep,  and  makes  a  very  de- 
sirable feed  when  it  can  be  obtained  at  a  relatively  low  cost.  It 
may  be  considered  nearly  equivalent  in  feeding  value  to  wheat 
bran  or  oats,  and  of  slightly  lower  value  than  corn,  barley,  and 
similar  feeds.  According  to  the  feed-unit  system,  it  takes  1.1 
pounds  of  either  of  the  former  feeds  or  1  pound  of  the  latter  feeds 

BNew  Jersey  Bulletin  189.          6  Unpublished  results. 


SUGAR  FACTORY  FEEDS  AND  OIL  MEALS  195 

to  equal  a  feed  unit  (p.  79).  Dried  beet  pulp  is  often  moistened 
with  three  to  five  times  its  weight  of  water  about  six  hours  before 
feeding  time,  especially  on  dairy  farms  where  there  is  no  silo.  Some' 
dairymen  and  farmers  prefer  feeding  the  pulp  in  this  way.  In 
case  of  heavy  producing  cows  or  steers,  it  is  possible  that  they  are 
induced  to  eat  their  feed  with  a  keener  appetite  and  to  eat  more 
when  the  dried  pulp  is  fed  moistened  than  when  fed  dry,  but  no 
decided  advantage  has  been  shown  by  this  method  of  feeding. 

Beet  molasses  is  sometimes  added  to  the  pulp  in  the  factory 
as  it  goes  to  the  drier;  the  resulting  molasses  beet  pulp  makes  an 
excellent  feed  for  dairy  cows  and  sheep,  being  worth  somewhat 
more  than  the  plain  dried  pulp.7  It  was  found  to  have  about  one- 
tenth  higher  feeding  value  of  corn  for  fattening  lambs  in  experi- 
ments conducted  at  the  Colorado  station ;  this  is  probably  somewhat 
too  high  for  an  average  figure. 

II.    OIL  MEALS 

The  oil-bearing  seeds  that  furnish  by-products  of  value  as  stock 
feeds  are :  Flaxseed,  cotton  seed,  coconut,  soybean,  and  peanut,  the 
last  three  to  a  limited  extent  only. 

Linseed  Meal  (Oil  Meal). — Flaxseed  (Fig.  37)  is  grown  largely 
in  the  northwestern  States,  the  Dakotas,  and  Minnesota,  and  the 
linseed  oil  mills  are  located  in  these  and  the  central  States.  There 
are  two  methods  of  manufacture,  known  as  (a)  old-process  and  (b) 
new-process.  By  the  former  method  the  cleaned  and  ground  seeds 
are  placed  in  large  linen  bags  and  subjected  to  heavy  pressure  until 
the  residue  forms  cakes  about  1  inch  thick  and  about  13  by  32 
inches  (edges  trimmed).  The  cakes  are  broken  into  small  pieces 
or  ground  to  a  fine  meal,  usually  the  latter,  which  is  generally  sold 
as  old-process  linseed  meal,  or  simply  oil  meal. 

In  the  new  process  of  manufacture  the  flaxseed  is  ground  and 
heated  to  about  160°  F.,  and  is  then  placed  in  large  percolators 
holding  about  1000  bushels  or  more.  The  seed  is  treated  repeatedly 
with  naphtha  till  practically  all  the  oil  is  dissolved.  Live  steam 
is  then  introduced  into  the  percolators  and  the  naphtha  gradually 
driven  out  of  the  mass.  The  meal  is  transferred  to  steam-heated 
driers,  and,  when  dried,  elevated  to  the  meal  bins  and  sacked.  The 
naphtha  is  evaporated  from  the  oil  solution,  and  commercial  lin- 
seed oil  remains. 

7  Wisconsin  Report  22,  p.  108;  see  also  Massachusetts  Bulletin  99, 
Michigan  Bulletin  220. 


196 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 


Old-process  meal  is  generally  preferred  by  feeders  on  account  of 
its  forming  a  jelly  with  warm  water,  and  because  of  its  favorable 
influence  on  the  health  and  appearance  of  farm  animals.  Owing 
to  its  relatively  high  oil  content  (6  to  8  per  cent),  it  is  somewhat 
more  laxative  than  new-process  meal,  which  contains  only  about 
3  per  cent  fat,  and  it  gives  a  thrifty  appearance  to  stock,  producing  a 
fine,  shiny  coat,  soft  to  the  touch,  which  is  of  special  importance  in 
the  case  of  exhibition  stock.  The  nutritive  effect  of  the  two  kinds 
of  meal  may,  in  general,  be  considered  nearly  similar.  The  old- 
process  meal  has  some  advantage  as  a  feed  for  fattening  animals, 


FIG.  37. — Cross-section  of  flaxseed  showing  the  different  layers  of  cells:  c,  cuticle;  q, 
mucilage  cells;  s,  stone  cells;  pi,  pigment  cells;  p,  protoplasm  and  oil;  a,  aleurone  (protein) 
grains;  when  soaked  in  water  the  mucilage  cells  swell  and  form  the  peculiar  flaxseed  jelly. 

for  show  stock,  and  in  combination  with  dry  feed  or  feeds  of  con- 
stipating tendencies ;  when  given  with  feeds  of  a  laxative  influence, 
such  as  green  fodders,  roots,  and  silage,  or  where  a  large  supply 
of  protein  is  important,  as  is  often  the  case  in  feeding  milch  cows, 
the  new-process  meal  may  be  preferred. 

The  Swelling  Test* — It  is  of  interest  to  determine  at  times  whether  an 
oil  meal  is  old-  or  new-process.  The  following  simple  test  can  be  made  at 
any  farm  by  means  of  a  tumbler  and  a  teaspoon :  Pulverize  a  small  quantity 

8 Wisconsin  Report,  1895,  p.  64;  "Examination  of  Oil  Meals,"  by  the 
author. 


SUGAR  FACTORY  FEEDS  AND  OIL  MEALS 


197 


of  the  meal  and  place  a  level  teaspoonful  of  it  into  a  tumbler  (Fig.  38)  ; 
then  add  ten  teaspoonfuls  of  boiling  hot  water  to  the  meal;  stir  thoroughly 
and  leave  to  settle.  If  the  meal  is  new-process  it  will  settle  in  the  course 
of  an  hour,  and  will  leave  about  one-half  of  the  water  clear  on  top.  Old- 
process  meal  will  remain  jelly-like. 


FIG.  38. — The  swelling  test.  I,  old-process  oil  meal;  II,  new-process  oil  meal.  In  case 
of  the  former,  the  meal  stirred  in  water  remains  in  suspension  on  standing,  while  the  new- 
process  meal  soon  settles  so  as  to  leave  a  clear  yellowish  solution  on  top,  only  about  half  the 
quantity  of  water  added  being  absorbed. 

Composition  of  Linseed  Meal. — The  chemical  analysis  and 
digestibility  of  old-  and  new-process  oil  meal  will  be  seen  from  the 
following  table: 

Chemical  Composition  and  Digestibility  of  Linseed  Meals,  in  Per  Cent 


Total  components 

Digestible  components 

Old-process 

New-process 

Old-process 

New-process 

Moisture  

9.8 
5.5 
33.9 
7.3 

35.7 

7.8 

9.0 

5.5 
37.5 
8.9  \ 
36.4  I 
2.9 

36!2 
32.0 

6.9 
1.6 

31^5 
35.7 

2.4 
1.3 

Ash  

Protein  

Fiber  ... 

Nitrogen-free  extract  

Fat 

Nutritive  ratio   1  • 

198  DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 

Linseed  meal  may  be  fed  safely  to  all  classes  of  farm  animals ; 
generally  speaking,  it  is  one  of  the  most  desirable  stock  feeds  avail- 
able. Flaxseed  contains  a  glucoside,  linamarin,  which,  with  fer- 
ments, may  yield  prussic  acid;  but  it  is,  as  a  rule,  present  in  only 
minute  quantities,  and  but  few  cases  of  ill  effects  from  its  use  as  a 
stock  feed  are  on  record.  The  cost  of  the  more  starchy  factory  by- 
products makes  them,  in  general,  relatively  cheaper  sources  of  pro- 
tein than  oil  meal,  but  the  latter  may  be  fed  to  advantage  in  smaller 
quantities  even  under  these  conditions,  on  account  of  the  medicinal 
properties  as  a  regulator  of  the  system,  and  for  its  stimulating 
effects  on  the  appetite  of  the  animals  and  their  general  feeling  of 
well-being. 

The  quantities  to  be  fed  daily  will  depend  on  the  relative  cost 
of  oil  meal  and  other  concentrates.  If  the  market  prices  of  the 
latter  feeds  are  such  as  to  admit  of  economical  feeding  of  large 
quantities  of  oil  meal,  the  following  amounts  may  be  fed  per  head 
daily  without  injurious  effects:  Horses,  1  pound;  milch  cows  and 
fattening  steers,  3  pounds ;  fattening  sheep  and  hogs,  1  pound,  the 
quantities  fed  being  increased  toward  the  end  of  the  fattening 
period ;  calves  and  lambs,  %  pound  or  less.  Where  the  production  of 
high-grade  butter  is  the  object  sought,  not  more  than  one  pound 
of  oil  meal  should  be  fed,  since  the  quality  of  the  butter  is  apt  to 
suffer  when  larger  quantities  are  fed,  especially  if  given  with  corn 
or  other  feeds  having  a  similar  softening  effect  on  the  butter. 
Calves  are  generally  fed  boiled  flaxseed  rather  than  oil  meal,  espe- 
cially until  they  are  about  two  months  old,  unless  the  price  of  the 
seed  is  almost  prohibitive,  as  sometimes  happens.  Oil  meal  may 
advantageously  be  fed  to  swine  as  a  slop,  a  pailful  of  meal  being 
stirred  into  a  barrel  of  skim  milk  and  left  over  night ;  the  mixture 
will  form  a  thick,  almost  solid  mass  in  the  morning,  which  will  be 
greatly  relished  by  swine.  Fed  to  poultry  in  small  quantities,  a 
tablespoonful  to  each  hen  a  few  times  per  week,  it  will  brighten  the 
plumage,  invigorate  the  system,  and  promote  laying. 

Cotton-seed  meal  is  the  ground  residue  obtained  in  the  manu- 
facture of  cotton-seed  oil ;  the  oil  is  expressed  by  pressure  as  in  old- 
process  linseed  meal.  The  cake  is  generally  ground  into  a  fine 
meal  for  the  trade  in  the  eastern  and  central  States,  while  for  the 
western  States  and  Europe  it  is  broken  into  pieces  of  about  nut  or 
pea  size,  which  are  readily  eaten  by  cattle;  for  sheep  the  cake  is, 
as  a  rule,  coarsely  pulverized.  There  are  two  kinds  of  cotton-seed 
meal  on  the  market,  vizv  decorticated,  made  from  seed  the  hulls  of 
which  are  largely  removed  before  the  extraction  of  the  oil,  and  the 


SUGAR  FACTORY  FEEDS  AND  OIL  MEALS 


199 


undecorticated,  so-called  cold-pressed  cotton-seed  cake;  this  is  the 
product  obtained  when  the  whole  uncrushed  seed  is  subjected  to  the 
cold-pressure  process  for  the  extraction  of  oil.  The  difference  in  the 
value  of  the  two  kinds  of  meal  is  readily  seen  from  the  following 
average  analyses: 

Composition  of  Cotton-seed  Meal  and  Cold-pressed  Cotton-seed  Cake,  in  Per  Cent 


Cotton-seed 
meal 

Cold-pressed 
cotton-seed 
cake 

Moisture  

7.0 

7.6 

Ash          

6.6 

4.9 

Protein  
Fiber 

45.3 
63 

24.2 
21  1 

Nitrogen-free  extract  .... 
Fat 

24.6 
10.2 

32.5 
9.7 

100.0 

100.0 

Recent  analyses  of  cotton-seed  meal  appear  to  run  considerably 
lower  in  protein  than  given  above,  viz.,  about  42  or  41  per  cent, 
with  fat  likewise  lower  (about  8  per  cent),  and  fiber  higher  (10  per 
cent).  The  trade  recognizes  three  grades  of  cotton-seed  meal: 
Choice,  prime,  and  good.  The  former  "  must  be  finely  ground,  not 
necessarily  bolted,  perfectly  sound  and  sweet  in  odor,  yellow,  free 
from  excess  of  lint,  and  must  contain  at  least  41  per  cent  protein." 
The  protein  limits  for  prime  and  good  cotton-seed  meal  are  38.6 
per  cent  and  36  per  cent,  respectively.  The  analyses  given  above 
indicate  the  difference  in  the  value  of  the  decorticated  and  cold- 
pressed  cotton-seed  cake.  The  high  fiber  content  of  the  latter  feed 
is  important,  and  the  result  is  shown  by  the  lower  digestibility  of 
this  feed  compared  with  cotton-seed  meal.9 

Average  Per  Cent  Digestibility  of  Decorticated  and  Cold-pressed  Cotton-seed  Cake 


Protein 

Fat 

Nitrogen- 
free 
extract 

Decorticated  cotton-seed  meal 
Cold-pressed  cotton-seed  cake  . 

86 

74 

93 
90 

77 
55 

It  is  evident,  from  the  differences  in  the  protein  and  fiber  con- 
tents of  the  two  feeds,  that  cotton-seed  meal  is  a  much  more  valu- 
able seed  than  cold-pressed  cake,  although  the  latter  ordinarily 

9  Pott,  "  Handb.  tier.  Ernahrung,"  iii,  2,  p.  102. 


200  DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 

sells  for  only  a  few  dollars  per  ton  below  cotton-seed  meal;  hence 
the  wisdom  of  buying  only  the  best  grades  of  cotton-seed  meal.  This 
applies  also  to  so-called  cotton-seed  feed  which  has  been  placed  on 
the  market  during  late  years.  This  is  "  a  mixture  of  cotton-seed 
meal  and  cotton-seed  hulls  (1:5),  containing  less  than  36  per 
cent  protein"  (definition);  as  a  matter  of  fact,  it  contains  only 
10  per, cent  protein,  3.4  per  cent  fat,  and  33.1  per  cent  fiber.10 

Test  for  Impurities. — The  Vermont  station  has  published  the 
following  simple  test  for  impurities  in  cotton-seed  meal  :1X 

Place  a  teaspoonful  of  the  meal  in  a  tumbler  and  pour  over  it  an 
ounce  and  a  half  to  two  ounces  of  water.  Stir  the  mass  until  it  is  thoroughly 
wet  up  and  all  the  particles  are  floating.  Allow  it  to  subside  for  from  five 
to  ten  seconds  and  pour  off.  If  a  large  amount  of  fine  dark  brown  sediment 
has  settled  in  this  time,  a  sediment  noticeably  heavier  than  the  fine  mustard- 
yellow  meal,  one  which  upon  repeated  treatments  with  boiling  hot  water 
keeps  settling  out,  the  goods  are  a  feed  meal,  i.e.,  meal  containing  relatively 
large  quantities  of  ground  hulls.  If,  however,  there  is  found  a  larger  amount 
of  this  residue,  one  which  persists  in  remaining  after  several  washings,  it  is 
surely  composed  of  hulls,  and  it  is  a  feed  meal  or  an  adulterated  cotton-seed 
meal.  The  results  are  striking  when  the  same  sample  is  compared  with  a 
pure  cotton-seed  meal. 

Uses  of  Cotton-seed  meal. — Cotton-seed  meal  is  a  very  valu- 
able feed  when  rightly  used.  In  most  sections  of  the  country  it  is 
our  highest  protein  feed  and  the  cheapest  source  of  protein  for 
stock  feeding.  It  is  an  excellent  feed  for  milch  cows,  and  may  be 
fed  in  large  quantities  (six  pounds  per  head  daily)  apparently  for 
any  length  of  time;  ordinarily  only  one  to  two  pounds  per  head 
are  fed  daily,  however,  with  other  concentrates,  and  this  is,  in 
general,  the  better  practice,  since  heavy  feeding  of  cotton-seed  meal 
gives  the  butter  a  hard,  tallowy  texture,  raises  the  melting-point 
of  the  butter  fat,  and  decreases  the  percentage  of  volatile  fatty 
acids  (p.  23), — in  short,  produces  a  low-grade  butter.12 

Fattening  steers  may  also  receive  similar  heavy  feeds  of  cotton- 
seed meal  as  milch  cows,  if  desired,  but  only  for  a  period  not  to 
exceed  90  days ;  if  fed  cotton-seed  meal  longer  and  in  larger  quanti- 
ties, sickness  and  death  are  likely  to  occur,  owing  to  the  presence  of 
poisonous  principles  in  the  meal,  very  likely  choline,  an  amide; 
an  alkaloid  has  also  been  identified  in  cotton-seed  meal,  which  may 
be  the  cause  of  the  poisoning  effect  of  the  meal  on  certain  animals. 
Cotton-seed  meal  cannot  safely  be  fed  to  calves  or  pigs  for  the 

10  Pennsylvania  Bulletin  28. 

"Bulletin  101,  Texas  Bulletin  109;  Experiment  Station  Record  20, 
p.  510. 

"Proc.  Soc.  Prom.  Agr.  Science,  1889,  p.  84. 


SUGAR  FACTORY  FEEDS  AND  OIL  MEALS  201 

same  reason.  Eecent  investigations  at  the  North  Carolina  Station 
appear  to  show  that  the  danger  in  feeding  cotton-seed  meal  to  pigs 
can  be  overcome  by  giving  them  in  their  drinking  water  for  every 
pound  of  cotton-seed  meal  eaten,  for  each  100-pound  pig,  one  gal- 
lon of  a  solution  of  iron  sulfate  (made  by  dissolving  1  pound  in 
50  gallons  of  drinking  water).13  If  further  work  shows  that  cotton- 
seed meal  can  be  safely  fed  to  pigs  by  this  method,  it  will  prove  of 
great  importance  to  American  agriculture,  as  it  will  tend  to  do 
away  with  enormous  losses  of  pigs  that  occur  each  year  through  the 
feeding  of  cotton-seed  meal  either  to  pigs  direct  or  to  steers  fol- 
lowed by  pigs. 

Cotton-seed  hulls  are  also  fed  to  cattle  in  the  South,  being 
used  as  a  roughage  and  a  cheap  substitute  for  hay.  They  are  dry, 
hard  and  usually  covered  with  a  fuzzy  lint.  The  average  composi- 
tion of  cotton-seed  hulls  is  as  follows : 

Moisture    11.3  per  cent 

Ash 2.7  per  cent 

Protein 4.2  per  cent 

Fiber     , 45.3  per  cent 

Nitrogen-free  extract    . .  34.1  per  cent 

Fat    2.2  per  cent 

100.0 

Ten  per  cent  of  the  protein  has  been  found  digestible;  38  per 
cent  of  the  fiber,  40  per  cent  of  the  nitrogen-free  extract,  and  77 
per  cent  of  the  fat,  making  the  amounts  of  digestible  feed  con- 
stituents found  therein: 

Protein 42  per  cent 

Carbohydrates   and   fat     34.77  per  cent 

The  hulls  are  used  as  a  fuel  at  the  oil  mills  and,  as  stated,  for 
stock  feeding,  either  clear  or  mixed  with  concentrates,  like  cotton- 
seed meal,  wheat  bran,  cracked  corn,  etc.  In  the  South  cotton-seed 
meal  and  cotton-seed  hulls  are  often  fed  as  the  entire  ration  for 
fattening  steers,  milch  cows,  and  other  stock.14 

Immense  numbers  of  steers  are  fattened  in  the  South  on  these 
feeds  only,  generally  mixed  in  the  proportions  of  four  parts  of 
hulls  and  one  of  meal.  The  fattening  is  continued  from  90  to  120 
days.  Sheep  and  dairy  cows  are  also  fed  mixed  cotton-seed  meal 
and  hulls  with  good  results.  "All  the  information  at  hand  indi- 

13  North  Carolina  Circular  5. 

"Farmers'  Bulletin  36,  pp.  14-15:  "Directions  for  Feeding  Cotton- 
seed Meal  and  Hulls  to  Farm  Animals." 


202  DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 

cates  that  this  practice  is  both  economical  and  profitable.  The  diet 
apparently  does  not  injure  the  health  of  the  animals,  nor  impair 
the  healthfulness  of  the  resulting  products."15 

Coconut  meal  is  used  as  a  stock  feed  in  this  country  very  little 
except  on  the  Pacific  coast.  It  is  relatively  low  in  protein,  fat,  and 
fiber,  its  composition  being  about  as  follows:  20  per  cent  protein, 
6  to  8  per  cent  fat,  9  to  10  per  cent  fiber,  and  6  per  cent  ash. 

According  to  digestion  experiments  conducted  at  the  Massa- 
chusetts station,16  the  protein  is  90  per  cent  digestible,  the  fat 
wholly  digestible,  and  the  nitrogen-free  extract  87  per  cent  digesti- 
ble. As  the  price  of  coconut  meal  is  generally  but  slightly  higher 
than  wheat  bran,  it  is,  as  a  rule,  a  more  economical  concentrate 
than  this  feed,  especially  for  dairy  cows,  but  it  cannot  be  fed  in  as 
large  amounts  as  wheat  bran,  nor  can  it  be  kept  more  than  a  few 
weeks  in  warm  weather  on  account  of  its  tendency  to  turn  rancid. 

Fresh  coconut  meal  has  a  pleasant,  aromatic  flavor  and  is 
greatly  relished  by  cattle  and  other  stock;  two  to  three  pounds 
daily  is  a  fair  allowance  for  cattle.  It  should  be  fed  mixed  with 
other  concentrates. 

Soybean  meal  is  the  ground  residue  obtained  in  the  manu- 
facture of  soybean  oil.  The  meal  fed  in  this  country  is  imported 
from  either  Japan,  China,  or  Manchuria ;  so  far  as  is  known,  none 
is  manufactured  here,  although  soybeans  are  now  grown  quite  exten- 
sively in  various  sections  of  the  United  States.  It  is  a  valuable 
concentrate  for  farm  stock,  and  is  one  of  the  richest  nitrogenous 
feeds  on  the  market,  containing  about  as  much  protein  and  fat  as 
cotton-seed  meal  (41.4  per  cent  and  7.2  per  cent,  respectively)  ; 
it  has  a  lower  fiber  content  (5.3  per  cent)  and  a  higher  digestibility 
than  this  meal.  According  to  Kellner,  only  3.4  per  cent  of  the 
protein  is  present  in  amide  form,  and  the  protein  has  a  digesti- 
bility of  97.7  per  cent.  The  soybean  meal  is,  therefore,  a  highly 
digestible  feed,  well  adapted  for  feeding  young  stock,  dairy  cows, 
steers,  and  other  farm  animals.  It  is  fed  in  this  country  almost 
entirely  on  the  Pacific  coast,  where  it  is  used  largely  for  poultry 
feeding.  It  makes  a  good  substitute  for  linseed  meal,  pound  for 
pound,  for  dairy  cows,  and  is  one  of  the  most  promising  concen- 
trates available  for  stock  feeding;  the  only  objection  to  its  use,  so 
far  as  is  known,  is  its  cost,  which  is,  as  a  rule,  considerably  above 
that  of  linseed  meal  or  cotton-seed  meal. 

1G  Loc.  cit.         lc  Bulletin  152. 


SUGAR  FACTORY  FEEDS  AND  OIL  MEALS  203 

Peanut  Meal. — This  residue  is  obtained  in  the  manufacture  of 
peanut  oil.  It  is  rarely  fed  in  this  country,  but  it  is  one  of  the 
common  oil  meals  used  by  European  dairy  farmers.  The  meal  on 
the  market  is  manufactured  either  from  hulled  or  whole  peanuts, 
the  former  being  the  more  valuable.  It  is  one  of  our  most  con- 
centrated and  digestible  nitrogenous  feeds,  containing,  on  the  aver- 
age, nearly  50  per  cent  protein,  7.3  per  cent  fat,  5.0  per  cent  fiber, 
24.5  per  cent  nitrogen-free  extract,  and  5.2  per  cent  ash.  The  pro- 
tein substances  and  the  nitrogen-free  extract  are  90  per  cent  di- 
gestible, and  the  fat  89  per  cent  digestible.  It  is,  therefore,  a  con- 
siderably richer  feed  than  either  cotton-seed  meal  or  soybean  meal, 
and,  like  these,  is  well  worthy  of  a  trial  or  a  more  extended  use  by 
our  dairy  and  stock  farmers.  In  Europe  peanut  meal  is  fed  espe- 
cially to  dairy  cows,  which  receive  two  or  three  pounds  thereof 
daily  per  head,  generally  mixed  with  other  kinds  of  oil  meal  and 
grain.  It  is  also  often  fed  as  sole  concentrate,  however;  a  common 
ration  for  dairy  cows  in  southern  Germany  and  Switzerland  is 
composed  of  about  20  pounds,  meadow  hay  and  two  to  four  pounds 
peanut  meal,  according  to  the  production  of  the  cows.  It  is  also 
a  good  feed  for  fattening  steers,  and  is  fed  to  horses  as  a  partial 
substitute  for  oats,  viz.,  in  place  of  13.2  pounds  (6  kilos)  of  oats, 
8.8  pounds  oats  and  2.2  pounds  peanut  meal,  and  in  place  of  11 
pounds  of  oats,  6.6  pounds  oats  and  3.3  pounds  peanut  meal.  This 
oil  meal  is  also  used  with  good  results  in  feeding  young  stock,  espe- 
cially foals.  On  account  of  its  high  fat  and  protein  contents,  it 
has  a  rather  poor  keeping  quality ;  it  is  sometimes  adulterated  with 
residues  from  other  oil-bearing  seeds  or  with  peanut  hulls,  and 
should,  therefore,  be  bought  on  analysis. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Describe  the  by-products  obtained  in  the  manufacture  of  (a)  cane-sugar, 

( 6 )    beet-sugar ;  and  give  the  main  uses  to  which  these  are  put  in  feeding 
farm  animals. 

2.  What  are  the  general  methods  of  manufacturing  oil  meals  ? 

3.  Give  the  main  oil  meals  used  for  feeding  farm  animals  in  this  country, 

and  their  characteristic  properties. 

4.  Give  the  swelling  test  for  determining  when  an  oil  meal  is  old-  or  new- 

process. 

5.  Give  a  simple  test  for  purity  of  cotton-seed  meal. 

6.  Are  cotton-seed  meal  and  cotton-seed  hulls  used  as  sole  feeds  for  farm 

animals;  if  so,  under  what  conditions  and  for  what  purposes? 


CHAPTER  XIX 
ANIMAL  FEEDS 

I.    PACKING-HOUSE  FEEDS 

The  packing-house  products  used  for  feeding  livestock  are 
dried  blood,  tankage,  meat  scraps  or  meat  meal,  and  bone  meal. 
These  feeds  are  especially  valuable  for  feeding  pigs,  poultry,  and 
other  animals  that  require  a  considerable  supply  of  nitrogenous  and 
mineral  components  in  their  feed,  and  do  not  object  to  the  animal 
odor  of  these  feeds.  The  packing-house  products  are  high-protein 
feeds,  and  those  containing  much  bone,  like  meat  scraps  and  tank- 
age, are  rich  in  mineral  matter,  especially  phosphoric  acid  and  lime. 

Dried  blood  or  blood  meal  contains  over  80  per  cent  of  protein, 
sometimes  as  high  as  86  per  cent,  of  which  about  nine-tenths  is 
digestible,  and  the  small  amount  of  fat  present  therein  has  been 
found  wholly  digestible.  Blood  meal  (blood  flour)  is  used  to  some 
extent  in  feeding  calves,  being  given  in  the  skim  milk,  about  a  tea- 
spoonful  per  feed.  This  is  considered  an  excellent  source  of  protein 
for  calves,  and  is  also  of  value  on  account  of  its  tonic  effect.  Other 
young  stock  may  receive  about  one-fourth  pound  per  day  per  100 
pounds,  and  older  animals  one  to  two  pounds  per  head  daily.  The 
price  of  the  blood  meal  stands  in  the  way  for  its  more  general  use 
for  older  animals,  however.  It  must  also  be  fed  mixed  with  other 
concentrates  to  such  animals,  as  stock  object  to  the  animal  odor  of 
both  blood  and  meat  products.  Digester  tankage,  meat  meal,  beef 
scraps,  and  similar  feeds  vary  considerably  in  composition,  accord- 
ing to  their  origin  and  the  amount  of  bone  which  they  contain. 
They  should  always  be  bought  on  definite  guarantees  of  protein 
and  fat  contents. 

Tankage  makes  a  valuable  swine  and  poultry  feed.  It  is  made 
from  fresh  meat  scraps,  fat  trimmings,  and  scrap  bones.  These 
are  thoroughly  cooked  in  large  steel  tanks  under  live  steam  pressure, 
by  which  method  the  tallow  is  separated.  The  steam  is  then  turned 
off,  and,  when  the  mass  has  settled,  the  tallow  is  drawn  off.  The 
residue  is  kept  agitated  and  dried  till  it  contains  about  8  per  cent 
water,  and  the  tankage  is  then  taken  out,  allowed  to  cool,  ground, 
and  is  ready  for  shipment.  Tankage  is  generally  sold  under  a 
guarantee  of  60  per  cent  protein  and  6  per  cent  fat,  while  meat 
204 


ANIMAL  FEEDS  205 

meal  or  beef  scraps  contain  40  to  50  per  cent  protein,  8  per  cent  or 
more  of  fat,  and  about  25  per  cent  ash,  largely  phosphate  of  lime 
(bone). 

An  important  use  of  meat  meal  and  similar  feeds  is  in' poultry 
feeding.  Experiments  at  Geneva  (N.  Y.)  and  other  stations  have 
established  the  superior  value  of  animal  proteins  in  feeding  poultry, 
especially  ducks.  It  is  likely  that  this  value  depends,  to  a  large 
extent,  on  the  mineral  matter  supplied  in  these  feeds,  and  not 
especially  on  the  protein  which  they  contain;  better  results  are 
generally  obtained,  however,  by  feeding  both  classes  of  nutrients 
combined  in  the  same  feeding  stuff  rather  than  separately,  as,  e.g., 
grain  feeds  with  ashes  or  bone  meal. 

Fish  meal,  or  fish  meat  meal,  contains  amounts  of  protein,  fat, 
and  mineral  matter  similar  to  good  grades  of  meat  meal,  and  may 
be  considered  of  about  equal  value  to  this  feed,  pound  for  pound, 
for  feeding  poultry  or  swine,  when  manufactured  from  fresh  fish 
refuse  by  modern  sanitary  methods.  Besides  being  a  valuable 
poultry  feed,  fish  meal  may  be  fed  to  horse  and  cattle  in  a  limited 
way  where  an  extra  supply  of  protein  in  the  rations  seems  desirable. 
In  northern  Europe  it  is  occasionally  fed  to  dairy  cows  in  amounts 
of  one  to  two  pounds  per  head  daily,  mixed  with  other  concentrates, 
and  is  considered  an  economical  feed,  well  adapted  for  this  purpose, 
although  the  cows  at  first  object  to  its  peculiar  odor. 

Bone  meal  or  ground  bone  is  likewise  used  for  feeding  poultry, 
and,  in  a  small  way,  with  Indian  corn  for  pigs,  in  order  to  correct 
the  lack  of  ash  materials  in  this  cereal  (p.  341).  One-half  ounce 
ground  phosphate  rock  (floats)  may  be  given  daily  to  calves  or 
pigs  for  the  same  purpose.1 

II.    DAIRY  FEEDS 

The  dairy  products  form  a  most  important  group  of  feeds  for 
livestock.  Owing  to  the  value  of  whole  cows'  milk  as  a  human  food, 
and  as  the  raw  material  for  the  manufacture  of  cream,  butter, 
cheese,  etc.,  it  is  only  used  for  stock  feeding  in  the  case  of  beef 
animals,  and  for  dairy  and  breeding  animals  during  the  early  life 
of  the  calves.  It  is,  therefore,  not  necessary  to  describe  in  this 
place  the  chemical  or  physical  properties  of  all  milk,  beyond  a  few 
observations  as  to  its  value  for  young  stock. 

Colostrum  Milk. — Immediately  after  calving  a  thick,  viscous 
liquid,  known  as  colostrum,  is  secreted  by  the  cow;  in  the  course 

1  Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  1. 


206 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 


of  two  or  three  days  this  gradually  changes  to  normal  milk.  The 
colostrum  differs  from  milk  in  its  high  content  of  solids,  albumen, 
and  ash,  while  the  percentages  of  fat  and  sugar  which  it  contains 
are  somewhat  lower  than  those  of  normal  milk.  Owing  to  the 
high  albumen  content,  colostrum  will  thicken  (coagulate)  on  heat- 
ing. The  average  chemical  composition  of  colostrum  and  normal 
cows'  milk  and  milk  of  other  farm  animals  will  be  seen  from  the 
following  table: 

Average  Composition  of  Milk,  in  Per  Cent  (Konig) 


Water 

Fat 

Casein 

Albumen 

Milk- 
sugar 

Ash 

Cows'  colostrum  .... 
Cows'  milk  (normal) 

74.6 

87.3 

3.6 
3.7 

4.0 

2.9 

13.6 
.5 

2.7 
4.9 

1.6 

.7 

Ids/res'  milk 

908 

1  2 

2 

.0 

5.7 

.3 

Ewes'  milk  
Goats'  milk 

80.8 

85.7 

6.9 

4.8 

6 
4 

.5 
.3 

4.9 
4.4 

.9 
.8 

Sows'  milk  

82.5 

5.8 

6 

.3 

4.4 

1.0 

The  colostrum  of  the  other  milk-producing  animals  is  corre- 
spondingly high  in  albumen  and  ash  compared  with  that  of  milch 
cows.  Whole  milk  is  the  first  feed  of  young  animals,  and  is  a  com- 
plete feed,  containing  all  the  elements  necessary  for  the  sustenance 
and  growth  of  the  young.  On  account  of  the  relatively  large  fat 
globules  in  milk  rich  in  butter  fat,  this  is  not,  however,  adapted  for 
feeding  young  pigs  and  lambs;  digestive  disturbances  are  likely  to 
occur  when  such  milk  is  fed,2  and  animals  do  not  make  as  satisfac- 
tory gain  on  such  milk  as  on  whole  milk  lower  in  fat  or  on  skim  milk. 
A  similar  harmful  effect  of  an  excess  of  fat  in  the  milk  has  been 
frequently  observed  in  feeding  infants. 

Calves  are  fed  the  dam's  milk  for  only  a  day  or  two  after  freshen- 
ing in  ordinary  farm  practice,  except  in  the  case  of  beef,  exhibition, 
or  breeding  , stock,  which  often  receive  whole  milk  for  several 
months,  when  they  are  fed  skim  milk,  with  ground  flaxseed,  ground 
grain,  or  mill  feeds  until  they  can  eat  and  digest  hay  and  concen- 
trates (p.  221). 

In  the  feed-unit  system  three  pounds  of  whole  milk  are  given 
an  equivalent  value  to  one  feed  unit  (one  pound  of  grain).  We 
may  assume  that  it  will  require  six  pounds  of  whole  milk,  on  the 
average,  for  a  pound  of  gain  with  young  calves,  or  one-half  the 
amount  of  skim  milk  required. 

aStorrs   (Conn.)  Bulletin  31. 


ANIMAL  FEEDS  207 

Skim  milk  is  used  extensively  for  feeding  calves  and  pigs,  and, 
properly  "  reinforced,"  makes  an  excellent  substitute  for  whole 
milk  in  feeding  these  animals.  It  is  also  often  fed  to  poultry.  It 
is  now,  as  a  rule,  obtained  by  the  centrifugal  method,  which  fur- 
nishes a  by-product  containing,  on  the  average,  9.5  per  cent  solids, 
composed  of  about  0.10  to  0.15  per  cent  fat,  5  per  cent  sugar,  3.5 
per  cent  casein  and  albumen,  and  0.9  per  cent  ash.  It  is,  therefore, 
essentially  a  protein  feed,  with  a  nutritive  ratio  of  1:2;  hence  is 
preferably  supplemented  in  feeding  animals  with  starchy  or  medium- 
protein  feeds,  like  cereals,  wheat  middlings  or  shorts,  etc.  Creamer- 
ies furnish  their  patrons  enormous  quantities  of  skim  milk  in  the 
aggregate,  viz.,  as  a  rule,  80  per  cent  of  the  milk  delivered.  The 
whole  milk  is  also  run  through  a  separator  on  many  dairy  farms 
where  cream  is  shipped  or  delivered  to  the  creamery;  the  skim 
milk  thus  obtained  is  warm  and  in  the  best  possible  condition  for 
feeding  young  stock. 

The  value  of  separator  skim  milk  for  feeding  purposes  is  vari- 
ously estimated  at  15  to  25  cents  per  hundred  pounds;  according 
to  the  feed-unit  system,  six  pounds  of  skim  milk  are  of  the  same 
value  as  one  pound  of  grain;  at  one  cent  a  pound  for  this  ($20  per 
ton),  100  pounds  of  skim  milk  would,  therefore,  be  worth  16  cents, 
and  at  iy2  cents  for  grain  it  would  be  worth  25  cents  per  hundred. 

Experiments  conducted  at  the  Wisconsin  station  showed  that 
the  best  results  in  feeding  skim  milk  and  corn  meal  to  pigs  will 
be  reached  by  feeding  these  in  the  ratio  of  3  to  1.  Assuming  that 
five  pounds  of  corn  meal  fed  alone  would  produce  a  pound  of  gain, 
the  value  of  100  pounds  of  skim  milk  would  be  31  cents,  with  corn 
at  $20  per  ton;  46  cents  with  corn  at  $30  per  ton.  The  rule  given 
by  Gurler  as  to  the  value  of  the  skim  milk  is  that  100  pounds  when 
fed  with  corn  to  fattening  pigs  are  worth  one-half  the  market  price 
of  a  bushel  of  corn  (56  pounds). 

Unless  fed  perfectly  sweet  and  under  sanitary  conditions,  skim 
milk  will  be  likely  to  cause  scouring  in  calves;  pasteurized  skim 
milk  is  less  apt  to  give  trouble  in  this  respect,  and  it  is  important, 
therefore,  that  creameries  adopt  the  method  of  pasteurizing  the 
skim  milk  before  it  is  returned  to  the  patrons.  This  will  also 
improve  the  keeping  quality  of  the  milk  and  will  serve  the  still 
more  important  object  of  removing  the  danger  of  spreading  tubercu- 
losis through  the  skim  milk,  as  the  tubercle  bacillus  is  readily 
killed  on  heating  to  pasteurizing  temperatures  of  160°  F.  or  over 
(Fig.  39). 


208  DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 

Buttermilk  is  the  by-product  obtained  in  the  manufacture  of 
butter.  It  is  used  especially  as  a  feed  for  growing  and  fattening 
pigs.  It  contains,  on  the  average,  somewhat  less  than  10  per  cent 
solids,  viz.,  0.5  per  cent  fat,  4  per  cent  casein  and  albumen,  4.4  per 
cent  milk-sugar,  and  0.7  per  cent  ash.  It  does  not,  therefore,  differ 
materially  from  skim  milk  in  composition,  and  extensive  com- 
parative feeding  experiments  conducted  by  the  Copenhagen  station 
and  elsewhere  have  shown  that  buttermilk  is  very  nearly  of  the 
same  value  as  skim  milk  for  feeding  pigs.  It  can  also  be  fed  to 
calves  with  good  results,  if  special  care  is  taken  to  feed  it  in  fresh 
condition  and  in  small  amounts  at  the  start,  so  as  to  gradually 


FIG.  39. — Holstein  skim-milk  calves — promising  stock  for  the  dairy  herd. 

accustom  the  stomach  of  the  young  animals  to  it.  Unless  it  can 
be  fed  in  the  manner  suggested  and  with  the  most  scrupulous 
cleanliness,  the  attempt  had  better  not  be  made  to  feed  buttermilk 
to  calves,  as  disastrous  results  are  likely  to  follow  in  such  cases. 

Whey  is  obtained  as  a  by-product  at  cheese  factories,  and  is 
supplied  to  patrons  in  large  quantities.  It  contains  only  about 
6.6  per  cent  solids,  viz.,  0.3  per  cent  fat,  0.85  per  cent  albumen 
(with  a  little  casein  in  suspension),  4.8  per  cent  milk-sugar,  and 
0.65  per  cent  ash.  Whey  is  a  more  dilute  and  more  carbonaceous 
feed  than  either  skim  milk  or  buttermilk  (nutritive  ratio,  1 :  9, 
against  about  1 : 1.5  for  skim  milk  and  buttermilk)  ;  hence  it  may 
be  better  supplemented  by  protein  feeds  than  these,  like  wheat 
bran,  small  grains,  and  oil  meal.  Whey  is  fed  to  pigs  almost  en- 


ANIMAL  FEEDS  209 

tirely;  its  value  for  this  purpose  has  been  found  to  be  about  one- 
half  of  that  of  skim  milk  or  buttermilk.  This  would  make  12 
pounds  of  whey  equal  to  one  pound  of  grain  feed  in  feeding  value. 
It  has  also  occasionally  been  used  as  a  calf  feed,  but  the  preceding 
remarks  as  to  feeding  buttermilk  to  calves  apply  with  still  greater 
force  to  whey.  It  must  be  fed  fresh  and  sweet,  if  used  for  this 
purpose,  and  with  the  utmost  care  as  to  the  various  factors  that 
make  for  successful  calf  feeding  (p.  220). 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  packing-house  feeds  are  used  for  feeding  farm  animals?     Give  the 

characteristic  properties  and  uses  of  each. 

2.  What  is  colostrum  milk? 

3.  Name  the  dairy  by-products  used  for  feeding  farm  animals. 

4.  What  are  the  characteristics  of  each?    Name  their  uses. 

5.  What  is  the  average  composition  of    (a)    cows'  milk,    (6)   mares',  ewes', 

goats',  and  sows'  milk  ?    In  the  case  of  the  latter  kinds,  give  fat  contents 
only. 

6.  What  is  the  relative  feeding  value  of  whole  milk,  skim  milk,  buttermilk, 

and  whey  for  feeding  calves  or  pigs  ? 


14 


CHAPTEiE  XX 
MISCELLANEOUS  FEEDS 

I.  Proprietary  Feeds. — A  large  number  of  different  kinds  of 
mixed  feeds,  mostly  proprietary  feeds,  are  on  the  market  and  are 
sold  for  feeding  different  classes  of  farm  animals.     The  names 
under  which  they  are  sold  often  indicate  the  purpose  for  which 
they  are  intended,  like  dairy  feeds,  horse,  calf,  swine  feeds,  etc. 
Some  of  these  feeds  possess  considerable  merit  and  may  be  bought 
at  prices  that  render  them  economical  in  comparison  with  standard 
stock  feeds;  others  may  likewise  have  merit,  but  are  sold  at  ex- 
cessive prices,  and  others,  again,  are  neither  desirable  nor  economi- 
cal feeds  and  may  safely  be  left  alone.    Unfortunately,  the  majority 
of  the  proprietary  feeds  belong  to  the  last  class.    The  farmer  should 
aim  to  be  relatively  independent  of  feed  manufacturers  by  raising 
his  own  feed  so  far  as  practicable,  and  to  supplement  these  through 
the  purchase  of  standard  feeds  of  the  kind  required  for  the  special 
feeding  operations  in  which  he  is  engaged.     The  mixed  feeds  on 
the  market,  as  a  rule,  are  bought  by  farmers  who  are  either  so 
situated  that  they  cannot  raise  much  of  their  own  feed  or  who  have 
not  posted  themselves  sufficiently  on  the  subject  of  feeding  stuffs 
to  know  that  these  mixed  feeds  do  not  necessarily  possess  any  merit 
above  that  of  ordinary  well-known  feeding  stuffs,  and  that  state- 
ments on  the  advertising  circulars  of  feed  manufacturers  must  often 
be  considerably  discounted. 

There  are,  however,  as  suggested,  many  proprietary  feeds  on  the 
market  which  may  be  purchased  at  reasonable  prices  and  under 
definite  guarantees  of  minimum  contents  of  protein  and  fat,  and 
maximum  fiber  contents,  which  are,  moreover,  made  by  reliable 
manufacturers  who  value  their  business  reputation  and  furnish 
feeds  of  at  least  the  value  suggested  by  the  guarantees.  Where 
such  feeds  can  be  bought  at  fair  prices  and  fit  into  the  system  of 
feeding  practised  by  the  farmer,  there  is  no  reason  for  -not  giving 
them  a  trial.  Among  these  feeds  are  a  number  of  alfalfa  molasses 
feeds,  the  brewery  molasses  feeds,  mixed  grain  or .'  mill  feeds, 
etc.;  also  some  of  the  calf  meals  (if  not  too  high  priced)  and 
poultry  feeds. 

II.  Feeds  of  Minor  Importance. — Besides  the  feeding  stuffs 
mentioned  in  the  preceding,  a  large  number  of  materials  find  a 

210 


MISCELLANEOUS  FEEDS  211 

limited  use  for  feeding  farm  animals  in  different  parts  of  the 
world;  a  few  of  these  will  be  briefly  considered  in  the  following. 

Leaves  and  twigs  of  brush  and  trees  are  a  favorite  feed  for 
goats,  and  also  used  for  feeding  cattle  and  sheep  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  Scandinavian  countries  and  Finland,  being  harvested 
and  tied  in  bundles  in.  the  summer  and  fed  during  the  winter 
months  as  a  partial  substitute  for  hay,  which  often  cannot  be  ob- 
tained in  sufficient  quantities  to  carry  the  animals  through  the 
season.  Birch,  ash,  and  linden  are  commonly  harvested  for  this 
purpose.  The  dried  leaves  and  small  twigs  of  these  trees,  fed  in 
a  limited  amount,  make  a  fair  feed  for  the  animals  mentioned,  as 
well  as  for  goats,  and  have  about  similar  nutritive  value  as  the 
lower  grades  of  hay  or  straw.  Brush  feed  has  been  recommended  as 
a  carrier  for  molasses  in  feeding  farm  stock,  and  is  used  for  this 
purpose  to  a  limited  extent.1  It  consists  of  leaves,  twigs,  and  small 
stems  of  underbrush,  which  are  run  through  a  cutter  and  crusher, 
and  molasses  is  afterwards  mixed  with  the  material.  Enthusiastic 
reports  of  such  molasses  feeds  are  on  record,  but  their  feeding 
value  has  not  yet  been  determined  by  means  of  carefully-conducted 
experiments. 

Acorns  and  beechnuts  are  used  as  a  swine  feed  on  the  Continent 
in  Europe,  and  in  a  small  way  in  this  country  in  the  South  and  in 
California,  the  animals  being  driven  to  the  woods  in  the  fall  and 
fattened  upon  the  nuts  that  they  pick  up  from  the  ground.  Ac- 
cording to  the  Tuskegee,  Alabama,  station,2  acorns  and  kitchen 
slop  make  a  good  feed  for  swine,  about  five  pounds  of  acorns  being 
fed  per  head  daily.  The  tendency  of  beechnuts  to  make  a  soft 
pork  of  inferior  quality  may  be  overcome  by  feeding  peas  or  horse 
beans  for  a  few  weeks  prior  to  slaughtering  time.  The  effect  of 
acorns  on  the  quality  of  the  pork  appears  to  be  in  the  opposite 
direction,  although  the  evidence  on  this  point  is  somewhat  conflict- 
ing.3 Both  these  nut  and  brush  feeds  contain  considerable  quantities 
of  tannin  which  renders  them  bitter  and  less  palatable  to  stock 
than  ordinary  feeding  stuffs. 

Icelandic  moss  is  another  material  that  is  sometimes  used  for 
feeding  cattle  in  extreme  northern  countries.  It  may  be  inferred 
that  this  possesses  considerable  feeding  value  from  the  fact  that  it 
forms  the  main  and  often  sole  feed  of  the  reindeer  in  these  northern 
regions.  Its  digestibility  and  nutritive  effects  have  been  studied 

1  Wisconsin  Circular  30,  p.  94. 

2  Bulletin  93. 

3  Pott,  "  Futtermittellehre,"  ii,  1,  p.  569. 


212  DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 

by  Isaachsen,  of  the  Agricultural  College  of  Norway.4  It  is  essen- 
tially a  starchy  feed,  containing  about  50  per  cent  nitrogen-free 
extract,  42  per  cent  fiber,  and  only  3  per  cent  protein. 

III.  Condimental  Stock  Feeds. — Condimental  stock  feeds, 
stock  tonics,  etc.,  are  sold  everywhere  and  in  large  quantities  in 
the  aggregate.  In  so  far  as  these  materials  claim  to  be  feeds  and 
to  possess  actual  nutritive  properties,  they  can  be  dismissed  at  once, 
as  they  are  not  fed  in  sufficient  quantities  to  be  of  any  importance 
whatever  as  feeds,  and  are,  furthermore,  too  expensive  to  be  used 
for  this  purpose.  As  regards  their  value  as  tonics  and  medicine, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  examinations  made  of  the  materials  have 
shown  that  they  do  not  contain  sufficient  amounts  of  substances 
possessing  medicinal  properties  to  have  any  influence  on  stock  one 
way  or  the  other.  A  large  bulk  (one-half  or  more)  of  the  stock 
feeds  are  made  up  of  some  common  feeding  stuffs,  like  mill  feeds, 
corn  meal,  oil  meal,  ground  screenings,  etc.,  and  the  balance  gen- 
erally consists  of  salt,  charcoal,  or  sulfur,  with  a  small  amount  of 
mild  drugs  or  condiments,  like  gentian,  fenugreek,  sassafras,  ginger, 
pepper,  etc.  The  doses  of  these  condiments  which  an  animal  re- 
ceives in  an  ounce  or  two  of  the  stock  feed,  fed  as  directed,  are  too 
small  to  have  any  medicinal  effect  whatever,  as  they  make  only  a 
small  fraction  of  the  dose  recognized  by  veterinary  science,  on 
account  of  the  small  proportions  in  which  they  are  present  in  the 
stock  feeds. 

The  preceding  remarks  are  largely  based  on  theoretical  con- 
siderations, which,  however  weighty  they  are,  may  not  settle  the 
matter  in  the  minds  of  many  people.  The  stock  feeds  have,  however, 
been  tried  out  at  more  than  a  dozen  different  experiment  stations, 
and  the  results  obtained  in  the  trials  are  given  in  the  publications 
of  these  stations  and  may  be  studied  by  all  interested.  The  author 
made  an  investigation  of  the  main  stock  feeds  on  the  American 
market  several  years  ago  and  compiled  the  results  obtained  on  all 
experiments  that  were  conducted  with  them  up  to  that  time  in 
this  and  foreign  countries.  In  these  experiments  992  farm  animals 
were  included  in  all,  viz.,  78  steers,  81  dairy  cows,  604  sheep,  112 
pigs,  and  117  hens.  Out  of  the  23  different  trials  compiled,  only  two 
showed  the  stock  feed  to  possess  any  merit,  and  the  interpretation 
of  the  results  of  the  two  exceptions  is  open  to  question.  The  evi- 
dence is,  therefore,  practically  unanimous  against  the  use  of  con- 
dimental  stock  feeds,  and  goes  to  show  that,  when  fed  under  condi- 

4  Ber.  Norges  Landbrukshojsk,  1905-6,  p.  202 ;  Tidsskr.  norske  Landbr., 
1910,  No.  10. 


MISCELLANEOUS  FEEDS  213 

tions  similar  to  those  that  prevailed  in  these  experiments,  the  addi- 
tion of  a  stock  feed  to  the  ration  is  a  positive  disadvantage,  both 
with  reference  to  the  production  of  the  animals  and  the  relative 
cost  of  the  production. 

Home-made  Stock  Tonics. — If  a  farmer  considers  it  necessary 
to  use  stock  feeds  for  animals  in  poor  condition  of  health,  off  feed, 
or  ailing  in  one  way  or  another,  that  is  not  plainly  a  case  for  a 
veterinarian  to  attend  to,  it  would  seem  that  the  better  plan  would 
be  to  buy  the  separate  ingredients  at  a  drug  store  and  mix  them  in 
the  proportions  indicated  below.  He  will  save  money  thereby  and 
will  have  the  satisfaction  of  knowing  just  what  he  is  feeding  his 
stock  and  of  feeding  it  in  a  much  more  concentrated  form  than  in 
the  case  of  commercial  preparations.  The  following  three  mixtures 
of  drugs,  etc.,  have  been  suggested  by  the  Vermont  station  5  and  the 
Iowa  station  (Formula  3)  :6 


and  feed  as  above  for  ten  days  more. 

Formula  2. — Fenugreek,  y2  pound ;  ginger,  y2  pound ;  powdered  gentian, 
y2  pound;  powdered  sulfur,  ys  pound;  potassium  nitrate,  y2  pound;  resin,  y2 
pound;  cayenne  pepper,  14  pound;  ground  flaxseed  meal,  3  pounds;  powdered 
charcoal,  I1/*  pounds;  common  salt,  iy2  pounds;  wheat  bran,  6  pounds. 

Formula  3. — Powdered  gentian,  1  pound;  powdered  ginger,  1  pound; 
fenugreek,  5  pounds;  common  salt,  10  pounds;  bran,  50  pounds;  oil  meal, 
50  pounds. 

Summary.7 — The  evidence  at  hand  with  regard  to  condimental 
stock  feeds  shows  that  there  is  practical  unanimity  of  opinion 
among  scientific  men  who  have  given  the  subject  special  study,  in 
regard  to  several  points  connected  with  these  so-called  feeds  or 
tonics. 

1.  They  are  of  no  benefit   to   healthy   animals   when   fed   as 
directed,  either  as  to  increasing  the  digestibility  of  the  feed  eaten 
or  rendering  it  more  effective  for  the  production  of  meat,  milk, 
wool,  etc. 

2.  They  are  of  no  benefit  as  a  cure-all  for  diseases  of  the  various 
classes  of  live  stock;  neither  do  they  possess  any  particular  merit  in 
case  of  specific  diseases,  or  for  animals  out  of  condition,  off  feed, 
etc.,  since  only  a  small  proportion  of  ingredients  having  medicinal 

8  Bulletin  104. 

6  Bulletin  87. 

f  Condensed  from  Wisconsin  Bulletin  151,  "  Condimental  Stock  Feeds," 
by  the  author  (May,  1907,  40  pp.).  Bibliography  on  stock  feeds  up  to  1907 
is  given  in  this  bulletin. 


214  DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 

value  is  found  therein,  the  bulk  of  the  feeds  consisting  of  a  filler 
which  possesses  no  medicinal  properties  whatever. 

3.  Exorbitant  prices  are  charged  for  these  feeds,  as  is  natural, 
considering  the  extensive  advertising  the  manufacturers  are  doing 
and  the  liberal  commissions  which  they  pay  agents  and  dealers. 
The  large  sales  of  stock  feeds  are  doubtless  mainly  to  be  attributed 
to  these  facts. 

4.  By  adopting  a  liberal  system  of  feeding  farm  animals  and 
furnishing  a  variety  of  feeds,  good  results  may  be  obtained  without 
resorting  to  stock  feeds  of  any  kind.    If  a  farmer  considers  it  neces- 
sary to  give  stock  feeds  at  times,  he  can  purchase  the  ingredients 
at  a  drug  store  and  make  his  own  at  a  fraction  of  the  cost  charged 
for  them  by  the  manufacturers. 

The  preceding  conclusions  may  be  said  to  give  the  case  against 
the  condimental  stock  feeds.  It  is  only  fair  to  state,  as  the  other 
side  of  the  case,  that  the  suggestions  for  better  care  and  feeding  of 
stock  which  have  come  from  the  advertising  matter  issued  by  stock 
feed  manufacturers,  or  from  their  agents,  have  doubtless  been  of 
value  to  many  farmers  and  have  been  productive  of  results.  As 
many  people  are  not  disposed  to  heed  advice  that  is  given  without 
cost,  it  may  be  that  indirectly  the  money  spent  for  condimental 
stock  feeds  has  not  in  some  cases  been  wholly  wasted. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  a  proprietary  feed,  and  to  what  extent  is  it  wise  to  use  such  a 

feed? 

2.  Name  three  miscellaneous  feeds  of  minor  importance  for  feeding  stock. 

3.  State  how  and  for  what  class  of  farm  animals  each  is  used. 

4.  What  is  a  condimental  stock  feed? 

5.  State  the  main  conclusions  to  which  experiments  with  these  materials 

have  led. 

6.  Is  it  necessary  to  feed  condimental  stock  feeds  to  farm  animals  ?    If  not, 

what  would  you  use  in  their  place? 


PART  III 

PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

CHAPTER  XXI 
CALF  FEEDING 

Feeding  Standards  for  Calves. — The  following  tables  give  the 
feed  requirements  for  growing  cattle,  according  to  the  standards 
of  Wolff -Lehmann  and  of  Armsby: 

I.  Wolff-Lehmann  Standards  for  Growing  Cattle — 1000  pounds  live  weight 


Digestible 

Age, 
months 

Live 
weight, 
pounds 

Dry 

matter 

Protein 

Carbohy- 
drates 

N.  R. 

and  fat* 

{ 

2-3 

150 

23 

4.0 

17.5 

1:4.5 

For  dairy  breeds  \ 

3-6 

300 

24 

3.0 

15.1 

1:5.1 

\ 

6-12 

500 

27 

2.0 

13.6 

1:6.8 

f 

2-3 

165 

23 

4.2 

17.5 

1:4.2 

For  beef  breeds               j 

3-6 

330 

24 

35 

162 

1-47 

6-12 

550 

25 

2.5 

14.8 

1:6.0 

*  Given  separately  by  Wolff-Lehmann. 

//.  Armsby  Standards  Per  Day  and  Head 


Age, 
months 

Live 
weight, 
pounds 

Digestible 
protein, 
pounds 

Energy 
value, 
therms 

3 

275 

1.10 

5.0 

6 

425 

1.30 

6.0 

12 

650 

1.65 

7.0 

Birth  Weights  and  'Gains  made  by  Calves. — New-born  calves 
weigh  from  40  to  over  100  pounds  each,  according  to  the  size  of  the 
parents.  Beach  gives  the  average  birth  weight  of  calves  of  the  dairy 
breeds  as  follows:1  Ayrshire,  77  pounds;  Guernsey,  79  pounds; 
Holstein,  107  pounds;  Jersey,  67  pounds.  These  weights  were  7  to 


Connecticut  (Storrs)  Report,  1907. 


215 


216 


PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


9  per  cent  of  the  average  weights  of  their  respective  dams,  which 
were  all  mature  cows.  According  to  Eckles,  the  average  birth 
weights  of  calves  in  the  University  of  Missouri  dairy  herd  were : 
Ayrshire,  64  pounds;  Holstein,  89  pounds;  Jersey,  53  pounds,  and 
Dairy  Shorthorn,  76  pounds,  these  weights  being  6  to  8  per  cent 
of  the  weight  of  the  dam.2  The  records  show  that  bull  calves  average 
about  ten  pounds  heavier  than  the  females  at  birth;  the  maturity 
of  the  cow  is  also  of  importance,  the  birth  weight  of  calves  from 
heifers  and  young  cows  being,  on  the  average,  about  five  pounds 
lower  than  that  of  calves  from  cows  that  had  given  birth  to  three 
or  more  calves. 

Gains  Made  by  Calves. — In  experiments  at  the  Kansas  sta- 
tion, calves  reared  on  skim  milk,  grain  and  pasture  from  birth  until 
one  year  old  made  the  average  gains  during  the  successive  months 
shown  in  the  following  table  :3 

Weight  of  Calves  from  Birth  till  One  Year  Old,  in  Pounds 


Age, 
months 

Average 
weight 

Average 
gain 
made 

Number 
of 

calves 

Age 
months 

Average 
weight 

Average 
gain 
made 

Number 
of 
calves 

Birth 

77 

23 

1 

111 

34 

45 

7 

403 

54 

38 

2 

144 

33 

56 

8 

455 

52 

28 

3 

181 

37 

60 

9 

515 

60 

21 

4 

229 

48 

60 

10 

578 

63 

20 

5 

287 

58 

54 

11 

626 

48 

20 

6 

349 

62 

43 

12 

669 

43 

19 

The  gains  made  during  the  respective  months  were  lowest  during 
the  first  three  months  and  higher  toward  the  end  of  the  year,  with 
gains  of  about  one  pound  per  head  daily  during  the  first  months,  and 
about  two  pounds  per  head  daily  during  the  fifth  to  the  tenth  month ; 
the  average  daily  gain  during  the  entire  year  was  1.6  pounds  per 
head. 

The  method  of  feeding  the  calf  will  vary  according  to  the  pur- 
pose in  view:  Whether  it  is  to  be  added  to  the  dairy  or  beef  herd, 
or  is  to  be  vealed.  After  considering  some  general  phases  of  the 
subject  of  calf  feeding,  we  shall  take  up  separately  the  feeding 
of  calves  for  the  various  purposes  mentioned  (Fig.  40). 

Feeding  Stuffs  for  Calves. — The  number  of  different  feeds 
used  for  feeding  calves  is  not  as  large  as  in  the  case  of  mature 

2  "Dairy  Cattle  and  Milk  Production,"  p.  174. 
'Bulletin  126;  see  also  Illinois  Bulletin  164. 


CALF  FEEDING 


217 


animals.  The  more  important  calf  feeds  are:  Whole  milk  and 
dairy  by-products,  milk  substitutes,  hay,  and  various  concentrates. 
Whole  milk  is  the  natural  feed  for  calves,  both  as  to  the  char- 
acter of  its  nutrients  and  the  proportion  in  which  these  occur.  It 
forms  their  sole  feed  for  a  period  of  a  week  or  two  to  several  months, 
according  to  the  purpose  in  view,  whether  the  calf  is  to  be  added 
to  the  breeding  herd  or  to  be  vealed. 


FIG.  40. — Dairy  calves  in  the  pasture — an  old-country  scene. 

Only  the  fourth  stomach  (abomasum)  of  the  new-born  calf  is 
fully  developed;  the  other  three  compartments  are  small  and  do 
not  take  part  in  the  digestion  of  the  feed  until  the  calf  is  old  enough 
to  eat  solid  feed.  The  lining  of  the  fourth  stomach  of  the  young 
calf  contains  a  considerable  amount  of  the  ferment  rennin,  and 
large  numbers  of  such  calves  are  killed  annually  in  Europe,  espe- 
cially in  Bohemia,  to  supply  the  demand  for  rennet  stomachs  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  cheese.  As  the  calf  learns  to  eat  solid  feed, 
the  other  compartments  of  the  stomach  gradually  develop,  and  the 
digestive  processes  become  similar  to  those  of  grown  animals. 

The  amount  of  whole  milk  required  for  one  pound  of  gain  will 
vary  considerably,  according  to  the  age  of  the  calves.  During  the 


218  PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

first  few  weeks,  4  to  6  pounds  will  make  one  pound  of  gain  under 
favorable  conditions,  while  with  older  calves  it  will  require  8  to  12 
pounds  to  produce  a  pound  of  gain. 

Whole  milk  will  produce  larger  gains  in  live  weight  than  skim 
milk  or  other  feeds,  but  this  is  made  at  considerably  higher  cost, 
on  account  of  the  high  value  of  whole  milk  as  a  human  food.  If 
we  assume  that  it  will  take  6  pounds  of  whole  milk  to  make  one 


FIG.  41. — At   meal  time  the  calf  is  fed  warm,  sweet  milk  in  a  clean  pail,  while  securely 
fastened  in  a  comfortable  stanchion.     (Wisconsin  Station.) 

pound  of  gain  in  a  young  calf  and  12  pounds  of  skim  milk  (p.  206), 
the  cost  of  the  ration  will  be  G  cents  in  the  former  case,  and  1.8  cents 
in  the  case  of  skim  milk  at  ordinary  creamery  prices — $1.00  per 
hundred  pounds  for  whole  milk  and  15  cents  per  hundred  pounds 
of  skim  milk.  In  experiments  at  the  Kansas  station  it  cost  four 
times  as  much  to  produce  a  pound  of  gain  with  calves  on  whole 
milk  as  on  skim  milk,  although  the  whole-milk  calves  gained  an 
average  of  1.86  pounds  daily,  against  1.51  pounds  for  the  skim- 
milk  calves.4 

Looking  at  the  problem  from  another  point  of  view,  Otis  found 
that  two  pounds  of  grain,  when  fed  with  the  proper  amount  of 
skim  milk,  were  equivalent  for  calf  feeding  to  one  pound  of  butter 

4  Bulletin  126;  Wisconsin  Bulletin  192. 


CALF  FEEDING 


219 


fat  in  whole  milk.  With  butter  fat  at  25  cents  per  pound,  100 
pounds  of  grain  (worth  $1.00  to  $1.50)  will  take  the  place  of 
$12.50  worth  of  butter  fat,  and  at  30  cents  for  butter  fat  it  will 
take  the  place  of  $15  worth  of  butter  fat.  Feeding  whole  milk  or 
poorly-skimmed  milk  to  calves  is,  therefore,  generally  speaking,  a 
very  expensive  and  wasteful  method,  since  skim  milk  with  only 
a  slight  fat  content,  fed  with  grain  feed,  will  produce  almost  as 
good  results. 

Skim  Milk. — The  value  of  skim  milk  and  other  dairy  by- 
products for  calf  feeding  has  already  been  considered  (p.  207). 
After  the  second  or  third  week  skim  milk  may  gradually  take  the 
place  of  whole  milk,  the  proportion  of  the  latter  being  slowly  de- 
creased and  that  of  skim  milk  increased  until  after  a  week  or  ten 
days  the  calf  will  be  getting  only  skim  milk.  This  is  fed  warm  and 


FIG.  42. — Calves  in  stanchions  in  pasture.     ("Productive  Farming,"  Davis.) 

sweet,  and  is  most  conveniently  fed  fresh  from  the  separator.  The 
foam  of  separator  skim  milk  should  always  be  skimmed  off  before 
feeding  the  milk  to  calves,  as  it  tends  to  cause  digestive  troubles 
and  bloating;  colic  and  scouring  resulting  in  death  may  follow  in 
aggravated  cases,  if  this  precaution  is  neglected.  A  calf  may  be 
fed  from  10  to  12  pounds  of  skim  milk  daily  in  three  feeds  until 
about  six  weeks  old,  when  the  amount  may  be  increased  to  16 
pounds  or  more,  if  he  can  handle  it  without  scouring,  and  this  is 
given  in  two  feeds,  one-half  at  each  meal. 

It  requires  constant  care  and  watchfulness  to  raise  a  skim- 
milk  calf  or  one  fed  other  dairy  by-products;  all  sudden  changes 
and  irregularities  in  feeding  must  be  avoided,  as  well  as  a  too 
liberal  allowance  of  milk  (Figs.  41  and  42).  Overfeeding  or  in- 
judicious feeding  is  a  frequent  cause  of  calf  scours,  and  when  this 
occurs  the  feed  or  milk  must  be  reduced  or  withheld  for  a  time, 
and  special  treatment  resorted  to. 


220  PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

Remedies  for  Calf  Scours. — 1.  A  teaspoonful  of  sterilized  dried  blood 
(so-called  blood  flour),  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  milk  at  each  meal,  will 
generally  remedy  the  trouble  when  it  is  promptly  attended  to.  The  blood 
meal  also  serves  as  an  excellent  tonic  for  weak  calves. 

2.  In  aggravated  cases  of  calf  scours  the  milk  is  withheld  and  an  egg 
in  a  tablespoonful  of  blackberry  brandy  is  given  three  times  a  day  till  im- 
provement is  noted. 

3.  The  formaldehyde  treatment  is  another  remedy  that  will  produce  good 
results  in  most  cases  after  a  few  days.4     A  teaspoonful  of  formaldehyde 
solution   ( 1  :  4000 )   is  added  per  pint  of  milk,  preferably  fed  immediately 
after  the  skim  milk  is  received  from  the  separator.    The  formaldehyde  solu- 
tion is  prepared  by  adding  one-half  ounce  of  formaldehyde  to  one  pint  of 
water. 

Rules  for  Feeding  Young  Calves. — The  following  rules 
adapted  from 'Missouri  Circular  47  epitomize  the  main  points  in 
feeding  young  calves: 

1.  Do  not  overfeed. 

2.  Feed  sweet,  preferably  fresh,  milk. 

3.  Feed  warm  milk  (85-90°  F.). 

4.  Feed  each  animal  individually. 

5.  Feed  regularly. 

6.  Keep  pens  and  calf  quarters  thoroughly  clean. 

"  Where  skim-milk  calves  do  poorly,  the  blame  usually  rests 
with  the  feeder.  The  cause  of  the  trouble  will  ordinarily  be  found 
in  some  one  or  more  of  the  following  conditions :  Lack  of  sunlight 
and  fresh  air;  unsanitary  stalls  or  boxes  that  are  not  properly 
cleaned  and  disinfected;  feeding  too  much  milk,  or  at  irregular 
intervals ;  feeding  stale  or  chilled  milk ;  feeding  from  pails  that  have 
not  been  scalded  daily;  feeding  improper  concentrates,  or  allow- 
ing the  excess  to  ferment  and  become  stale  in  the  feed  box " 
(Henry). 

Supplemental  Feeds  with  Skim  Milk. —  In  order  to  compen- 
sate for  the  butter  fat  removed  in  the  skim  milk,  many  different 
methods  have  been  recommended,  and  are  followed  with  success  by 
different  farmers.  Peanut  oil,  cod-liver  oil,  corn  oil,  or  oleo- 
margarine heated  to  110°  F.  and  mixed  thoroughly  with  the  skim 
milk,  is  used  to  a  limited  extent,  these  fats  being  added  in  the  pro- 
portion of  one-half  to  one  ounce  per  quart  of  milk.  The  most 
common  and  efficient  supplemental  feed  for  skim-milk-fed  young 
calves  is,  doubtless,  flaxseed.  This  may  be  added  either  direct,  a 
tablespoonful  of  ground  flaxseed  per  quart  of  milk,  or  the  meal  is 
boiled  into  a  jelly  with  six  parts  of  water,  which  is  mixed  with  the 
skim  milk  in  small  amounts,  the  equivalent  of  two  tablespoonfuls 
of  the  dry  meal  to  a  feed. 

The  amount  of  skim  milk  required  for  one  pound  of  gain  in 

4S.  C.  Circular  122;  Farmers'  Bulletin  273. 


CALF  FEEDING  221 

feeding  calves  will  range  from  about  8  pounds  to  20  pounds,  the 
amount  of  milk  required  increasing  with  the  age  and  weight  of  the 
calves.  When  three  to  four  weeks  old,  the  calf  will  begin  to  eat 
some  grain ;  the*  best  way  to  teach  it  to  eat  grain  is  to  rub  a  little 
on  its  mouth  when  it  is  through  drinking  milk.  From  this  it  will 
soon  learn  to  eat  from  the  feed  box. 

Many  experiments  have  been  conducted  with  feeding  calves  for 
the  purpose  of  determining  the  value  of  different  grain  feeds  to  be 
fed  supplementary  to  skim  milk.  In  the  corn-growing  States  corn 
meal  will  prove  the  best  and  most  economical  supplementary  feed 
with  skim  milk,  and  it  is  theoretically  also  best  suited  for  this  pur- 
pose, being  higher  in  starch  than  either  of  the  other  common  grain 
feeds  ("N".  R.,  1:  9.5),  while  the  skim  milk  is  essentially  a  protein 
feed  (N.  R.,  1:2).  Because  of  its  constipating  effects,  ground 
kafir  corn  is  well  suited  to  be  fed  with  skim  milk.  Some  feeds  can- 
not, on  the  other  hand,  be  used  for  calf  feeding  with  skim  milk,  or 
must  be  fed  with  great  care,  for  the  reason  that  they  tend  to  in- 
crease the  danger  of  scouring;  examples  are  cod-liver  oil,  molasses, 
soybeans,  and  oil  meal. 

Grain  Feeds  for  Calves. — The  following  list,  prepared  by 
Otis,  may  serve  as  a  guide  to  the  farmer  in  making  combinations  of 
grain  feeds  to  be  fed  with  skim  milk  to  suit  his  particular  conditions : 

1.  Corn  meal,  gradually  changed  in  four  to  six  weeks  to  shelled  corn, 
with  or  without  bran. 

2.  Whole  oats  and  bran. 

3.  Whole  oats  and  corn  chop,  the  latter  gradually  replaced  by  shelled 
corn  in  four  to  six  weeks. 

4.  Ground  barley  with  bran  or  shelled  corn. 

5.  Shelled  corn  and  ground  kafir  corn  or  sorghum. 
C.  Whole  oats,  ground  barley,  and  bran. 

7.  A  mixture  of  twenty  pounds  of  corn  meal,  twenty  pounds  of  oatmeal, 
twenty  pounds  of  linseed  meal,  ten  pounds  of  blood  meal,  and  five  pounds  of 
bone  meal,  changed  to  corn,  oats,  and  bran  when  calves  are  three  months  old. 

8.  A  mixture  of  five  pounds  whole  oats,  three  pounds  bran,  one  pound 
corn  meal,  and  one  pound  of  linseed  meal. 

Roughage  for  Calves. — Calves  will  nibble  at  roughage  at  about 
the  time  they  begin  to  eat  a  little  grain,  at  three  to  four  weeks  old  or 
before.  Fine,  bright  hay  of  either  early-cut  blue  grass  or  mixed 
grasses  makes  the  best  roughage  for  calves.  Alfalfa  or  clover  hay  of 
choice  quality  is  also  excellent,  but  must  be  fed  with  some  care  to 
young  calves  to  prevent  scouring.  Hay  sufficient  for  a  day  may  be 
placed  in  a  rack  in  a  corner  of  the  calf  pen ;  any  residue  should  be 
removed  before  a  new  supply  is  given.  As  the  calf  grows  older,  it  will 
eat  more  roughage ;  at  about  six  months  old  it  will  take  about  three 
times  as  much  roughage  as  grain;  a  part  of  the  former  may  be 


222 


PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


of  succulent  character.  As  a  capacity  for  digesting  large  amounts 
of  coarse  feed  is  important  in  the  case  of  both  dairy  and  beef  cattle, 
it  is  a  good  plan  to  develop  the  digestive  apparatus  of  the  calf  by 
feeding  all  the  fine  hay  it  will  eat,  along  with  the  grain  given. 

Succulent  Feeds. — Corn  silage  of  good  quality  made  from  at 
least  nearly  matured  corn  and  free  from  mold  may  be  fed  to  ad- 
vantage in  small  quantities,  say  about  two  pounds  a  day  to  calves 
that  are  old  enough  to  eat  it;  older  calves  may  be  fed  five  to  ten 
pounds  with  dry  feed.  Roots  are  also  excellent  for  calves.  Pasture 
grass  will  give  good  results  with  calves  four  months  old  or  over. 
To  overcome  the  tendency  of  scouring  when  the  calves  are  turned 
on  to  pasture,  they  may  be  fed  some  soiling  crops  during  the  first 
days,  or  may  be  left  in  the  pasture  only  a  short  time  daily  at  first, 
so  as  to  gradually  accustom  them  to  the  green  feed. 

Water  and  Salt. — Calves  should  receive  both  water  and  salt 
regularly.  Otis  states  that  at  three  months  of  age  a  calf  will  drink, 
on  the  average,  five  quarts  of  water  daily.  They  like  to  drink 
often,  sipping  a  little  at  a  time.  A  half  barrel,  cleaned  and  re- 
plenished twice  daily,  will  serve  nicely  as  a  water  trough.  Another 
good  device  is  an  automatic  waterer,  which  may  be  easily  cleaned, 
placed  a  little  above  the  floor  to  keep  out  the  litter.  Salt  is  essen- 
tial to  the  normal  development  of  the  calf,  as  of  other  farm  ani- 
mals, and  should  be  given  regularly  or  kept  before  the  calves  all 
the  time. 

Substitutes  for  Skim  Milk. — On  account  of  the  large  propor- 
tion of  whole  milk  sold  for  direct  consumption,  to  condensed  milk 
factories,  or  to  cheese  factories,  many  farmers  do  not  have  skim 
milk  to  feed  young  stock,  and  numerous  special  calf  meals  have  as 
a  result  been  placed  on  the  market  to  serve  as  a  substitute  for  skim 
milk  in  calf  raising. 

Composition  of  Calf  Meals. — The  following  table  shows  some 
of  the  more  important  of  these  and  their  chemical  composition : 
Chemical  Composition  of  Calf  Meals,  in  Per  Cent 


Mois- 
ture 

Protein 

Fat 

Fiber 

Nitrogen- 
free 
extract 

Ash 

Blatchford's  calf  meal*  . 
Schumacher  calf  mealf  . 
Lactina  Suisset  

10.73 
9.59 
7.30 

25.00 
19.72 
29.75 

5.19 
7.95 
6.20 

6.21 

1.82 
3.00 

47.98 
58.56 
44.01 

4.89 
2.36 
9.74§ 

Sugarota  calf  meal*  .... 
No-Milk  calf  meal*  
Martin's  calf  feed*  

9.81 
10.49 
10.83 

24.58 
20.05 
27.31 

5.10 
5.26 
5.86 

4.19 

4.86 
6.76 

52.37 
54.92 
44.60 

3.95 
4.42 
4.64 

Average  (six  brands) 

9.79 

24.40 

5.93 

4.47 

50.41 

5.00 

*Wis.  Cir.  30.  t  Wis.  Cir.  22.  J  Mfr.'s  guarantees.  I  By  difference. 


CALF  FEEDING  223 

We  note  that  the  different  brands  of  manufactured  calf  meals 
are  high  in  protein,  fat,  and  nitrogen-free  extract,  and  low  in  fiber. 
Being  composed  of  standard  feeding  stuffs  of  unquestioned  merit, 
such  as  ground  cereals,  mill  feeds,  ground  flaxseed,  and  oil  meal, 
they  are  doubtless  highly  digestible  and  possess  a  high  feeding 
value ;  their  use  will,  therefore,  depend  upon  the  price  at  which  they 
are  sold  in  comparison  to  other  feeds  suitable  for  calf  feeding.  On 
this  point  it  must  be  said  that  the  prices  charged  for  these  feeds  by 
manufacturers  and  dealers  are,  as  a  rule,  high,  being  generally  $2.50 
to  $3.50  per  hundredweight.  Most  dairy  farmers  can  do  better  by 
making  their  own  calf  meals  from  standard  and  easily  obtainable 
feeds,  than  to  buy  these  manufactured  feeds,  unless  they  want  to 
use  only  small  amounts  for  individual  calves  that  need  some  extra 
feed  and  care.  Two  of  these  meals  (Blatchford's  and  No-Milk), 
have  small  amounts  of  mild  drugs  which  contain  aromatic  princi- 
ples, and,  as  suggested,  all  are  palatable  feeds  of  a  high  nutritive 
value.  The  question  is,  however,  whether  a  dairy  farmer  cannot 
obtain  as  good  results  with  less  expensive  mixtures  made  from  com- 
mon standard  farm  feeds.  It  seems  evident  that,  as  a  general  rule, 
he  can  do  so.  The  following  mixture  will  prove  a  very  satisfactory 
calf  feed  and  may  be  made  by  any  farmer  at  a  relatively  low  cost : 
20  parts  each  of  ground  oats  and  wheat  middlings,  10  parts  corn 
meal,  and  5  parts  linseed  meal  or  ground  flaxseed  (nutritive  ratio 
1:4.6). 

A  number  of  experiments  have  been  conducted  with  calf  feeds, 
the  most  extensive  ones  being,  perhaps,  the  Cornell  tests.6  The 
conclusions  drawn  from  these  experiments  are,  briefly  stated,  that 
good,  strong,  healthy  calves  can  be  raised  without  skim  milk ;  skim 
milk,  hay  and  grain  make  the  best  substitutes  for  whole  milk  for 
raising  calves.  A  calf  fed  on  skim  milk  should  reach  a  weight  of  300 
pounds  at  five  months  of  age,  and  the  gain  should  be  made  at  the 
rate  of  one  and  one-half  pounds  per  day.  If  skim  milk  is  not  at 
hand,  the  best  substitute  for  it  seems  to  be  third-grade  dried  skim- 
milk  powder.  A  calf  fed  on  this  feed  should  reach  a  weight  of 
250  to  260  pounds  at  five  months  of  age,  making  an  average  gain 
of  1.25  pounds  per  day.  The  manufactured  meals  did  not,  in 
general,  produce  economical  gains.  The  calves  on  the  best  of  these 
gained,  on  the  average,  1.25  and  1.10  pounds  per  day  during  two 

6  Bulletins  269  and  304 ;  see  also  Ontario  Agricultural  College  Report, 
1900,  1905;  and  Monthly  Bulletin  International  Institute  of  Agriculture, 
vol.4,  1914,  p.  509. 


224  PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

successive  years.  At  eighteen  months  of  age  there  was  apparently 
no  less  constitutional  vigor  manifested  by  the  animals  that  were 
in  poor  condition  at  fifteen  months  of  age,  due  to  feeding  them 
substitutes  for  skim  milk,  than  by  the  animals  that  received  skim 
milk,  and  which  were  in  better  condition  at  that  age. 

The  Dairy  Calf.7 — The  main  point  to  be  borne  in  mind  in  the 
feeding  and  the  development  of  the  dairy  calf  is  to  guard  against 
an  accumulation  of  fat  in  the  animal,  which  would  seriously  inter- 
fere with  the  usefulness  of  the  future  cow  in  the  dairy.  Feeds  of  a 
fattening  tendency  are,  therefore,  to  be  avoided,  and  only  such 
feeds  are  given  as  will  develop  a  vigorous  muscular  frame  and  bone 
structure.  With  this  end  in  view,  the  feeding  of  full  milk  to  the 
dairy  calf  is  discontinued  after  a  couple  of  weeks,  or  before,  in  case 
of  milk  rich  in  butter  fat,  and  separator  skim  milk  is  fed  in  its 
place,  the  change  from  one  feed  to  another  being  made  gradually, 
so  as  not  to  give  rise  to  digestive  disorders.  The  equivalent  of 
about  two  ounces  of  flaxseed  meal,  boiled  into  a  jelly  with  water 
(one  part  meal  to  six  of  water),  is  fed  daily  with  the  skim  milk. 
At  three  or  four  weeks  of  age,  other  feeds  are  given,  preferably 
oats,  wheat  middlings,  or  a  mixture  of  both.  Some  feeders  report 
good  results  from  feeding  farm-grains  with  skim  milk  after  the  first 
week.  The  calves  will  gradually  learn  to  eat  hay,  if  it  be  placed 
before  them;  a  fine  quality  of  clover  or  alfalfa  hay  or  any  good 
early-cut  mixed  hay  is  generally  reserved  for  this  purpose.  The 
object  in  view  throughout  the  first  year  should  be  to  keep  calves 
in  a  healthy  growing  condition,  and  to  feed  plenty  of  hay  so  as 
to  develop  the  digestive  apparatus  of  the  calf,  along  with  easily 
digestible  feeds  that  will  cause  a  rapid,  normal  growth  without  de- 
position of  unnecessary  body  fat.  Other  desirable  feeds  for  older 
calves  than  those  mentioned  are  mill  feeds,  small  grains,  especially 
barley,  oil  meal,  brewers'  and  distillers'  grains,  and  malt  sprouts. 
Cotton-seed  meal,  on  the  other  hand,  should  be  fed  only  sparingly, 
or  not  at  all. 

Fall  calves,  as  a  rule,  are  to  be  preferred  to  spring  calves  on 
dairy  farms,  both  because  they  can  receive  better  care  and  attention 
during  the  winter  months  than  in  summer,  and  because  they  will 
go  on  pasture  in  the  spring  at  an  age  when  their  digestive  apparatus 
is  developed  so  that  the  green  grass  may  form  their  main  feed, 
supplemented  with  some  grains  when  pastures  are  scant.  The  time 

7  Adapted  from  an  article  by  the  author,  on  "  Feeding  Dairy  Cattle," 
in  Cycl.  Amer.  Agr.,  vol.  iii. 


CALF  FEEDING  225 

for  calving  of  cows  in  a  dairy  herd,  however,  must  be  distributed 
over  the  year  to  some  extent,  so  as  to  insure  a  fairly  uniform  milk 
supply  throughout  the  year. 

The  Beef  Calf. — The  method  of  feeding  beef  calves  differs 
from  that  of  feeding  dairy  calves  mainly  in  the  fact  that  they  are 
fed  more  heavily  so  as  to  make  more  rapid  gains  than  the  latter. 
The  beef  calf  is  left  with  the  dam  or  fed  whole  milk  for  two  or 
three  weeks  to  as  many  months,  if  milk  does  not  bring  more  money 
used  for  other  purposes.  In  the  latter  case,  the  calf  is  gradually 
brought  over  to  skim  milk;  when  older,  the  calf  will  eat  hay  and 
grain,  and  is  fed  increasing  amounts  of  grain  from  this  time  on 
until  ready  for  the  market.  Suckling  beef  calves  fed  whole  milk 
should  show  a  gain  of  three  pounds  per  day  for  the  first  month, 
two  and  one-half  pounds  for  the  second,  and  two  pounds  thereafter, 
according  to  Henry,  and  should  weigh  400  to  500  pounds  at  six 
months  old.  A  calf  at  this  age  will  eat  approximately  five  pounds 
whole  corn,  two  pounds  whole  oats,  and  one-half  pound  linseed  meal 
a  day;  it  should  have  plenty  of  good  clover  or  alfalfa  hay  in  addi- 
tion. The  grain  is  increased  after  the  calf  is  able  to  eat  more  with 
a  good  appetite,  since  the  more  he  will  eat,  the  faster  he  will  gain, 
and  the  sooner  he  will  be  ready  for  market.  If  the  calf  is  intended 
for  "baby  beef"  (p.  269)  and  is  to  be  marketed  when  sixteen  to 
eighteen  months  old,  the  feeding  is  especially  heavy  so  as  to  secure 
as  rapid  gains  as  possible.  Only  beef-bred  bulls  of  a  low  and  com- 
pact build  will  produce  calves  that  are  suitable  for  this  purpose. 
Beef  calves  on  whole  milk  or  skim  milk  are  fed  chiefly  corn;  for 
fattening  this  is  supplemented  by  oats,  wheat  bran,  or  linseed  meal. 
Other  important  feeds  for  beef  calves  are  pasture,  corn  silage,  and 
roots;  the  two  latter  feeds  are  of  the  greatest  value  in  enabling 
steers  to  stand  heavy  grain  feeding  without  getting  "  off  feed  "  or 
being  subjected  to  digestive  disorders. 

The  Veal  Calf. — Bull  calves  or  heifer  calves  that  are  deficient 
in  any  way  and  are  not  wanted  for  the  dairy  herd  or  beef  herd  are 
generally  killed  at  once  or  sold  to  buyers  that  make  veal  of  them. 
For  the  highest  grade  of  veal,  whole  milk  is  the  only  feed  given, 
and  the  feeding  is  pushed  as  fast  as  possible  so  as  to  secure  rapid 
gains  and  get  the  calf  ready  for  market  in  prime  veal  condition. 
There  is  a  strong  demand  for  choice  veal  of  this  kind  in  Europe, 
and  calves  fattened  on  whole  milk  exclusively  bring  fancy  prices; 
also  in  this  country  the  demand  for  such  veal  is  increasing  in  the 
large  cities.  Calves  fed  whole  milk  only  can  be  readily  distinguished 
15 


226  PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

by  experts  by  the  white  of  the  eye  being  free  from  any  yellow  tint  and 
the  inside  of  the  eyelids,  lips  and  nose  being  perfectly  white.8 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  the  average  birth  weight  of  dairy  calves,  and  how  is  it  influenced? 

2.  Give  the  main  feeding  stuffs  used  for  feeding  calves. 

3.  Discuss  briefly  when  they  are  used  and  their  relative  values. 

4.  Give  three  remedies  for  calf  scours. 

5.  Give  the  main  precautions  to  be  observed  in  feeding  young  calves. 

6.  Name  half  a  dozen  different  combinations  of  grain  feeds  that  may  be  fed 

with  skim  milk  to  calves. 

7.  State  the  general  value  of  calf  meals. 

8.  Outline  the  method  of  raising  (a)  a  dairy  calf;    (&)  a  beef  calf;    (c)  a 

veal  calf. 

Reference  Books. — Students  are  referred  to  the  following  books  on  the 
general  subjects  of  feeding  farm  animals: 

Henry,  "  Feeds  and  Feeding,"  Madison,  Wis.,  1912. 

Jordan,  "  The  Feeding  of  Animals,"  New  York,  1912. 

Armsby,  "  Manual  of  Cattle  Feeding,"  New  York,  1887. 

Armsby,  "  Principles  of  Animal  Nutrition,"  New  York,  1908. 

Smith,  "  Profitable  Stock  Feeding,"  Lincoln,  Neb.,  1906. 

Harper,  "  Manual  of  Farm  Animals,"  New  York,  1911. 

Shaw,  "  The  Feeding  and  Management  of  Live  Stock,"  St.  Paul,  Minn.,  1912. 

Burkett,  "  First  Principles  of  Feeding  Farm  Animals,"  New  York,  1913. 

Plumb,  "  Types  and  Breeds  of  Farm  Animals,"  Boston,  1906. 

Youatt-Fream,  "  The  Complete  Grazier,"  London,  1908. 

Kellner,  "  The  Scientific  Feeding  of  Animals  "  (trans,  by  Goodwin),  London, 

1909. 

Wolff,  "  Farm  Foods  "  (trans,  by  Cousins) ,  London. 
Hall,  "  The  Feeding  of  Crops  and  Stock,"  New  York,  1911. 
Allen,  "  The  Feeding  of  Farm  Animals,"  Farmers'  Bulletin  22,  1901. 
Armsby,  "  The  Maintenance  Rations  of  Farm  Animals,"  Bureau  of  Animal 

Industry,  Bulletin  143,  1912. 
Armsby,  "  The  Computation  of  Rations  for  Farm  Animals  by  the  Use  of 

Energy  Values,"  Farmers'  Bulletin  346,  1909. 
Savage,  "  Computing  Rations  for  Farm  Animals,". Cornell  Bulletin  321, 1912. 

Literature  on  Calf  Feeding— Conn.  (Storrs),  r.  1903,  b.  31;  Ga.,  b.  90; 
Idaho,  b.  48;  Iowa,  r.  1891,  b.  35;  111.,  b.  164,  c.  118;  Ind.,  b.  47;  Kans.,  b. 
97,  126;  Ky.,  b.  171;  b.  104;  Md.,  b.  77;  Mass.,  r.  1893,  1903,  1904,  1908; 
Mich.,  b.  257;  Minn.,  r.  1894;  Miss.,  1894,  b.  8;  Mo.  b.  57,  c.  47;  Nebr.,  b.  68, 
75,  87;  N.  H.,  b.  58;  N.  C.,  b.  199;  Penna.,  r.  1891,  b.  60;  S.  C.,  b.  122;  Utah, 
b.  57;  Va.,  b.  172;  Wis.,  b.  1,  6,  7,  192. 

8  For  descriptions  of  the  methods  of  feeding  adopted  in  making  Scotch 
and  Dutch  veal,  see  Henry,  "  Feeds  and  Feeding,"  10th  ed.,  p.  314. 


CHAPTER  XXII 


FEEDING  DAIRY  CATTLE 

Feeding  Standards  for  Dairy  Cows. — In  studying  the  best 
methods  of  feeding  dairy  cows,  the  leading  standards  should  be 
kept  well  in  mind. 

/.  The  Wolff-Lehmann  Standards  for  Dairy  Cows — 1000  pounds  live  weight 


Digestible 

Tntnl          ' 

milk 

dry 

Carbo- 

N. R. 

yield 

matter 

Protein 

hydrates 

and  fat  * 

11.0 

25 

1.6 

10.7 

1  :  6.7 

16.5 

27 

2.0 

11.9 

1:6.0 

22.0 

29 

2.5 

14.1 

1:5.7 

27.6 

32 

3.3 

14.8 

1:4.5 

*  Given  separately  by  Wolff-Lehmann. 

//.  The  Armsby  Standards  for  Dairy  Cows 


Digestible 
protein, 
pound 

Energy 
values, 
therms 

For  maintenance  per  1000  pounds     .  .    .    

.5 

6.0 

Per  pound  of  average  milk  (13  per  cent  solids,  4  per 
cent  fat)         

.05 

.3 

The  dairy  cow  is  kept  primarily  for  producing  milk,  one  of 
the  most  valuable  human  foods  and  the  raw  material  for  the  manu- 
facture of  butter,  cheese,  and  other  dairy  products.  Through 
selection,  liberal  feeding,  and  careful  management,  the  cow  has 
gradually  been  developed  to  her  present  wonderful  capacity  for 
dairy  production.  The  average  production  of  many  dairy  herds 
at  the  present  time  exceeds  one  pound  of  butter  fat  per  head  for 
each  day  in  the  year,  or  over  3'60  pounds  for  the  year.  Cows  hold- 
ing production  records  for  milk  and  butter  fat  have,  however, 
exceeded  this  amount  many  times,  producing,  respectively,  over 
thirty  thousand  pounds  of  milk  and  nearly  eleven  hundred  pounds 
of  butter  fat  in  a  year.1 

Records  of  yearly  production:  Tilly  Alcartra  123459,  Holstein,  30,451 
pounds  milk;  May  Rilma,  Guernsey,  1073  pounds  butter  fat  (p.  250). 

227    . 


228 


PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


While  it  does  not  lie  within  the  scope  of  this  book  to  discuss  the 
various  factors  that  have  a  bearing  on  this  production,  it  seems  de- 
sirable to  state  briefly  the  main  influences  that  affect  the  value  of 
a  cow  in  the  herd  in  order  that  we  may  see  more  clearly  what  part 
the  feeding  plays  in  the  successful  management  of  a  dairy  (Fig.  43). 


FIG.  43. — Dairy  cows  of  good  breeding  and  well  kept  and  cared  for  make  excellent  returns 
"at  the  pail." 

Composition  of  Milk. — Cows'  milk  is  composed  of  the  follow- 
ing constituents:  Water,  butter  fat,  proteins  (casein  and  albumen), 
milk-sugar,  and  ash.  The  amounts  of  these  components  present  in 
milk  of  different  origin,  or  even  in  milk  from  the  same  cow  at 
different  times,  vary  widely.  The  limits  of  variation  for  normal 
milk  from  American  cows  are  about  as  follows : 2 

Composition  of  Cows'  Milk,  with  Variations,  in  Per  Cent 


Minimum 

Maximum 

Average 

Water  

82.0 

90.0 

87.4 

Fat 

23 

7  8 

3  7 

Casein  and  albumen  .  .  . 
Milk-sugar 

2.5 
35 

4.6 
60 

3.2 
50 

Mineral  matter  

.6 

.9 

.7 

2  Farrington-Woll,  "  Testing  Milk  and  its  Products,"  22nd  edition,  p. 
18;  see  also  Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  26,  p.  62. 


FEEDING  DAIRY  CATTLE 


229 


The  fat  is  the  most  valuable  single  component  of  the  milk;  it 
determines  the  quality  and  value  of  the  milk  as  a  human  food,  and 
largely,  also,  as  a  raw  material  for  the  manufacture  of  dairy  prod- 
ucts. A  high  fat  content  is,  as  a  rule,  accompanied  by  a  high 
per  cent  of  solids  other  than  fat,  and  is,  therefore,  of  direct  value 
in  the  manufacture  of  butter,  cream,  and  condensed  milk,  and,  up  to 
a  certain  extent,  in  cheese-making  as  well. 

Factors  Influencing  Milk  Production. — The  main  factors  that 
influence  the  amount  and  quality  of  milk  produced  by  cows  are: 
Breed,  individuality,  age,  •  stage  of  lactation  period,  frequency  of 
milking,  condition,  excitement,  season  of  the  year,  temperature 
and  weather,  grooming,  and  amount  and  character  of  feed. 

Breed. — The  various  breeds  of  cows  yield  milk  in  different 
amounts  and  of  different  quality,  as  is  well  known  to  all.  The  fol- 
lowing compilation,  giving  the  average  production  of  milk  and 
butter  fat  by  pure-bred  dairy  cows,  will  show  the  extent  of  the 
differences  between  the  various  breeds  in  these  respects.  The  figures 
were  compiled  from  the  results  obtained  in  tests  conducted  for  a 
series  of  years  at  four  American  experiment  stations  (Maine,  New 
Jersey,  New  York,  and  Wisconsin).  The  cost  of  feed  required  to 
produce  100  pounds  of  milk  and  1  pound  of  butter  fat  in  the  case 
of  the  different  breeds  is  also  given.  Prices  of  feed  have  advanced 
from  30  to  40  per  cent  since  these  breed  tests  were  conducted, 
hence  the  figures  in  the  last  columns  should  be  varied  accordingly.3 

Test  of-  Pure-bred  Dairy  Cows — Average  Results  for  Four  Stations 


Breed 

Num- 
ber of 
cows 

Lacta- 
tion 
periods 

Average  yield  per 
lactation  period, 
pounds 

Per 
cent 
fat 

Feed  cost  for 

Milk 

Fat 

100 
pounds 
milk, 
cents 

One 

pound 
fat, 
cents 

Jersey  

19 
17 
14 
10 
12 
3 
2 
2 

87 
67 
43 
20 
55 
5 
6 
4 

5681 
6243 
9275 
6909 
7512 
3984 
6971 
5721 

302.1 
317.1 
317.7 
248.5 
296.5 
183.3 
273.0 
213.1 

5.32 
5.08 
3.42 
3.59 
3.94 
4.60 
3.91 
3.73 

77.6 
69.9 
61.3 
78.5 
62.4 
94.0 
49.5 
76.0 

15.2 
13.7 
17.9 
21.5 
15.3 
20.5 
12.6 
20.1 

Holstein  

Ayrshire  

Devon  

American  Holderness.. 
Total  and  average. 

79 

287 

71.2 

17.1 

Only  a  limited  number  of  cows  of  the  various  breeds  were  in- 
cluded in  these  tests,  and  the  conditions  under  which  the  tests  were 

a  See  also  Wisconsin  Report,  1901,  p.  85. 


230 


PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


conducted  at  the  different  stations  differed  more  or  less,  as  did  also 
the  breeds  represented  in  the  respective  trials.  The  results,  there- 
fore, cannot  be  taken  as  absolute  evidence  of  the  capacity  of  the  dif- 
ferent breeds  for  dairy  production,  but  they  doubtless  show  in  a 
general  way  the  relative  value  of  the  breeds  in  the  dairy.  We  note 
that  the  breeds  rank  as  shown  below  in  regard  to:  (a)  Yield  of 
milk,  (&)  yield  of  butter  fat,  (c)  per  cent  of  fat,  (d)  feed  cost  for 
100  pounds  milk,  (e)  feed  cost  per  one  pound  butter  fat. 


a 
1.  Holstein 
2.   Shorthorn 
3.  Brown  Swiss 
4.   Ayrshire  * 
5.   Guernsey 
6.  Am.  Holderness 
7    Jersey 
8.  Devon 

6 

Holstein 
Guernsey 
Jersey 
Shorthorn 
Brown  Swiss 
Ayrshire 
Am.  Holderness 
Devon 

c 

Jersey 
Guernsey 
Devon 
Shorthorn 
Brown  Swiss 
Am.  Holderness 
Ayrshire 
Holstein 

d 
Brown  Swiss 
Holstein 
Shorthorn 
Guernsey 
Am.  Holderness 
Jersey 
Ayrshire 
Devon 

e 
Brown  Swiss 
Guernsey 
Jersey 
Shorthorn 
Holstein 
Am.  Holderness 
Devon 
Ayrshire 

Individuality. — There  are  wide  variations  between  individuals 
within  the  same  breed  as  to  the  capacity  for  milk  production  and 
the  quality  of  the  milk  produced.  These  variations  are  of  much 
greater  magnitude  than  the  average  differences  between  the  breed. 
The  great  difference  between  individuals  of  the  same  breed  as  re- 
gards the  amount  of  production  is  familiar  to  all ;  an  average  cow 
produces,  say,  20  pounds  of  milk  a  day,  containing  three-fourths 
pound  butter  fat;  a  very  good  dairy  cow,  on  the  other  hand,  will 
yield  over  twice  this  amount,  and  exceptional  producers  will  give 
more  than  quadruple  the  figures  stated.  But  the  average  quality 
of  milk  of  cows  of  the  same  breeds  also  differs  greatly.  The 
variations  are  probably  larger  within  the  Jersey  and  Guernsey 
breeds  than  in  any  other  breed;  there  are  thus  cows  or  families 
within  these  breeds  that  produce  milk  of  an  average  fat  content 
above  6  per  cent  during  the  entire  lactation  period,  while  individuals 
of  other  families  will  generally  not  go  over  4  per  cent.  In  the 
same  way,  we  find  some  Holstein  cows  producing  milk  with  over 
4  per  cent  fat,  and  others  whose  milk  will  contain  less  than  2.8  per 
cent,  on  the  average,  for  a  considerable  period  of  time. 

Age  of  Cows. — This  is  not,  on  the  whole,  an  important  factor. 
As  a  general  rule,  heifers  and  young  cows  will  give  milk  of  a  some- 
what higher  fat  content  than  older  cows,  but  the  differences  in  the 
average  quality  of  the  milk  for  a  long  period  of  time,  say  one  year, 
are  only  within  a  few  tenths  of  one  per  cent  in  the  fat  content,  and 
there  are  some  individuals  whose  milk  changes  with  advancing  age 
in  the  opposite  direction  from  that  stated. 


FEEDING  DAIRY  CATTLE 


231 


Stage  of  Lactation  Period. — This  is  of  greater  importance 
than  the  age  of  the  cow.  The  quality  of  the  milk  is,  in  general, 
higher  during  the  first  few  weeks  after  parturition  than  later  on, 
and  remains  fairly  constant  from  this  time  on  until  toward  the 
close  of  the  lactation,  when  the  milk  becomes  richer  in  solids  and 
fat  as  the  yield  decreases  (Fig.  44).  The  following  compilation 
by  the  author  of  300  cows  4  entered  in  the  Wisconsin  Dairy  Cow 
Competition,  1909-1911,  will  illustrate  the  changes  in  production 
of  dairy  cows  during  the  progress  of  the  lactation  period : 

Average  Daily  Production  of  Dairy  Cows  by  Months 


Month  of 
lactation 
period 

Average  daily  production  by  months 

Number 
of  cows 

Milk 

Solids 

Fat 

1          .     . 

Pounds 

43.9 
41.9 
38.8 
36.4 
34.6 

32.8 
30.8 
27.6 
23.9 
19.2 

16.7 
14.0 

Pounds 

5.63 
5.32 
4.93 
4.65 
4.41 

4.18 
3.92 
3.57 
3.13 

2.58 

2.28 
1.92 

Per  cent 
12.82 

12.70 
12.70 
12.77 
12.75 

12.74 
12.73 
12.93 
13.10 
13.44 

13.65 
13.71 

Pounds 

1.76 
1.65 
1.54 
1.46 
1.39 

1.32 
1.25 
1.14 
1.02 
0.87 

0.78 
0.67 

Per  cent 
4.01 
3.94 

3.98 
4.02 
4.02 

4.02 
4.06 
4.13 
4.27 
4.53 

4.67 
4.79 

323 
323 
323 
323 
323 

323 
323 
323 
323 
323 

251 

74 

2      

3      

4     

5  

6.. 

7  

8  

9  

10 

11 

12 

The  normal  decrease  in  the  flow  of  milk  in  well-managed  dairy 
herds  is  about  5  per  cent  a  month  during  the  second  to  seventh 
month  of  the  lactation  period,  about  10  to  12  per  cent  during  the 
eighth  and  ninth  months,  and  20  per  cent  for  the  tenth  and  subse- 
quent months. 

Condition. — The  physical  condition  of  a  cow  will  influence  the 
quality  and  amount  of  her  milk  secretion.  A  dairy  cow  in  good 
flesh  will  give  more  milk  and  of  richer  quality  than  cows  in  poor 
condition.  Where  cows  in  a  fleshy  body  condition  are  placed  on 
official  tests  shortly  after  parturition  their  milk  will  contain  1  to  2 
per  cent  fat  above  normal  during  the  first  2  to  3  weeks,  as  has  been 
shown  by  Eckles  and  the  author  ;5  cows  in  good  flesh  directly  after 
parturition  will  also  produce  milk  of  a  higher  fat  content  through- 

4  Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  26. 

5  Missouri  Bulletin  100;  Wisconsin  Report  19,  p.  117;  20,  p.  114. 


232 


PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


out  the  lactation  period  than  cows  that  are  thin  and  poor  at  the 
beginning  of  the  lactation. 

Frequency  of  Milking. — Under  otherwise  similar  conditions, 
the  shorter  the  interval  between  milkings,  the  less  milk  is  obtained 
and  the  higher  are  the  percentages  of  solids  and  butter  fat  con- 
tained therein.  Where  the  interval  between  milkings  is  nearly 
equal,  the  differences  in  quality  will,  as  a  rule,  be  small.  If  the 
cows  are  milked  three  times  a  day,  the  noon  milking  is  richest  and 
the  morning  milking  generally  lowest  in  butter  fat,  while  the  amount 
of  milk  is  least  at  noon  and  heaviest  in  the -morning. 


POUNDS  MILK 


PERCENT  FAT 


4-79% 


14.0  LBS 


FIG.  44. — Normal  changes  in  the  monthly  yield  and  the  fat  content  of  the  milk  from 
dairy  cows  with  the  progress  of  the  lactation  period,  based  on  the  results  obtained  in  the 
Wisconsin  Dairy  Cow  Competition,  1909-11. 

Excitement. — A  feverish  condition  is  generally  accompanied  by 
a  decrease  in  milk  flow  and  an  increase  in  the  fat  content;  in  cases 
of  severe  illness,  the  percentage  of  butter  fat  in  the  milk  will,  how- 
ever, be  abnormally  low.  Cows  in  heat,  cows  handled  roughly, 
chased  by  dogs,  or  excited  through  other  causes,  will,  as  a  rule,  give 
a  greatly  diminished  amount  of  milk,  which  will  test  very  high. 

Temperature  and  Weather. — Both  excessively  high  tempera- 
tures and  cold,  heavy  rain  storms  are  likely  to  cause  a  marked  de- 
crease in  the  percentage  of  butter  fat  in  the  milk.  Periods  of 
drought,  according  to  Van  Slyke,  cause  a  decrease  in  the  flow  of 
milk  and  in  the  contents  of  casein  and  albumen,  especially  the 
latter,  while  either  no  change  or  an  increase  in  the  .percentage  of 
butter  fat  will  occur.7 


FEEDING  DAIRY  CATTLE  233 

Season  of  Year. — The  percentage  fat  content  of  milk  appears 
to  be  subject  to  certain  seasonal  influences  that  are  independent  of 
the  stage  of  lactation  period,  the  breed  of  cows,  or  the  system  of 
feeding.  The  lowest  fat  content  of  the  milk  will,  in  general,  occur 
during  hot  weather,  in  June  or  July,  and  from  this  time  on  a  regular 
increase  occurs,  which  reaches  its  maximum  in  December  or  Janu- 
ary, and  a  general  gradual  decrease  then  takes  place  until  toward 
midsummer.6  This  seasonal  influence  appears  to  depend  on  the 
temperature  of  the  air,  and  is,  therefore,  to  be  expected  from  what 
was  said  in  the  preceding  paragraph. 

Grooming  and  Exercise. — Grooming  and  moderate  exercise 
stimulate  the  circulation  and  tend  to  cause  a  slight  increase  in  the 
milk  production  and  in  the  percentage  of  butter  fat  in  the  milk. 
Results  of  German  experiments  on  this  point 8  are  somewhat  more 
favorable  than  those  of  experiments  conducted  in  this  country.9 
The  effects  of  grooming  on  the  health  of  the  animals  and  on  the 
condition  of  the  milk  are,  however,  important  factors.  In  dairies 
producing  certified  or  sanitary  milk  the  cows  are  curried  and 
groomed  regularly,  and  udders  and  hindquarters  are  washed.  This, 
doubtless,  is  an  effective  means  of  promoting  the  health  of  the  herd 
and  lessening  the  bacterial  content  of  the  milk. 

Influence  of  Feed  on  Quality  of  Milk. — Contrary  to  the 
opinion  held  quite  generally  by  dairy  farmers  up  to  recent  years, 
the  feed  does  not  exert  any  marked  influence  on  the  quality  of 
the  milk  secretion,  so  long  as  the  cow  receives  sufficient  nutriment 
in  her  ration  to  maintain  her  body  weight.  Given  a  fair  amount 
of  protein  and  digestible  nutrients  in  the  ration,  the  quality  of  the 
milk  is  not  affected  by  a  more  liberal  system  of  feeding  or  by  fur- 
nishing any  special  feed  or  combination  of  feeds.  Underfed  or 
starved  cows  produce  milk  of  an  abnormally  low  fat  content,  and 
this  may  be  readily  raised  to  the  normal  percentage  for  the  individual 
cow  by  increasing  the  feed.  On  the  other  hand,  by  feeding  rations 
high  in  protein,  a  cow  will  give  milk  of  the  highest  fat  content  of 
which  she  is  capable,  but  any  improvement  in  quality  that  may  be 
wrought  by  such  feeding  is  small,  within  one  or  two  tenths  of  one 
per  cent  above  normal  at  the  most.  A  slight  improvement  in  the 
composition  of  the  milk  has  been  observed  in  some  cases  by  feeding 
single  feeds,  notably  palm-nut  meal  and  coconut  meal,  and  by 

6  See  Eckles,  Milchw.  ZentralbL,  1909,  p.  488. 

•T  Geneva  (N.  Y.)  Bulletin  68;  see  also  Wisconsin  Report,  1895,  p.  111. 

8  Jr.  f.  Landw.,  41  ( 1893),  p.  332. 

9  Vermont  Report,  1899,  1900. 


234  PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

feeding  fat  or  oil,  but  the  evidence  with  regard  to  this  point  fur- 
nished by  different  experiments  is  often  conflicting,  and  in  cases 
where  greater  differences  were  found  as  a  result  of  a  certain  system 
of  feeding  there  was  a  gradual  return  to  normal  after  a  couple  of 
weeks  or  before,  when  the  cows  became  accustomed  to  the  feed. 
In  general,  both  dairy  farmers  and  scientists  are  now  agreed  that 
it  is  impossible  to  change  materially  the  percentage  of  fat  in  a 
cow's  milk  by  the  feed;  no  amount  of  rich  feeding  or  supplying 
special  feeds  will  change  the  milk  of  a  Holstein  to  a  composition 
similar  to  that  of  a  Jersey,  or  make  low-testing  cows  or  families 
into  "  high  testers."  The  largest  improvement  in  quality  that 
can  be  hoped  for  would  be  within  a  few  tenths  of  one  per  cent. 
"  The  quality  of  the  milk  which  the  cow  produces  is  as  natural  to 
her  as  the  color  of  her  hair  " ;  it  is  a  practically  fixed  character  that 
is  intimately  connected  with  the  functional  activity  of  the  mammary 
gland. 

Influence  on  Quantity  of  Milk. — The  feed  eaten  by  a  cow  in- 
fluences in  a  marked  manner  the  quantity  of  milk  secreted,  and 
determines  the  production  that  the  cow  will  make,  up  to  the  capacity 
of  her  mammary  glands.  The  feed  is,  therefore,  of  primary  im- 
portance in  the  management  of  a  dairy,  and  the  problem  before 
the  dairy  farmer  is  to  provide  feed  for  his  cows  that  will  secure  the 
largest  production  of  which  these  are  capable,  at  a  minimum  cost. 
As  it  is  only  the  excess  of  feed  eaten  over  and  above  mainten- 
ance requirements  that  is  used  for  productive  purposes,  it  follows 
that  the  more  a  cow  will  eat  without  increasing  appreciably  in  body 
weight,  the  larger  returns  she  will  yield  per  unit  eaten  (see  chart, 
p.  236).  The  old  saying,  "  Feed  your  cow  and  she  will  feed  you," 
expresses  the  practical  experience  as  to  the  relation  of  feed  to 
product.  With  cows  of  the  dairy  type  that  respond  to  a  more 
liberal  system  of  feeding  by  an  increase  in  milk  production  and  not 
by  a  gain  in  body  weight,  this  is  a  safe  rule  to  follow  in  the  manage- 
ment of  a  dairy.  It  is  the  heavy  eaters  that  produce  the  largest 
yields  and  give  the  most  economical  production.10 

The  Value  of  High-producing  Cows. — Results  obtained  in 
the  Wisconsin  Dairy  Cow  Competition,  1909-1911,  illustrate  in  a 
striking  manner  the  value  of  high-producing  cows.  The  following 
table  gives  some  of  the  main  data  for  the  highest,  medium,  and 
lowest  producers  among  the  398  cows  in  the  competition  for  which 
complete  records  of  production  for  a  full  year  were  obtained.  The 

10Proc.  Soc.  Prom.  Agr.  Science,  1912,  p.  23;  Wisconsin  Bulletin  102, 
p..  78,  and  Research  Bulletin  26. 


FEEDING  DAIRY  CATTLE 


235 


cows  were  separated  into  three  groups  of  the  same  number  of  cows 
within  each  of  the  dairy  breeds  represented,  Holstein,  Jersey,  and 
Guernsey,  according  to  their  production  of  butter  fat;  the  data 
for  the  different  groups  have  been  combined  and  are  given  in  the 
following  table :  " 

Returns  from  Cows  of  Different  Producing  Powers 


Per  100  f 

eed  units 

Groups 

Butter 
fat 
pounds 

Cost 
of 
feed 

Net 
returns 

Feed 

units 

Butter 
fat, 
pounds 

Value 
of 
products 

1.  Highest  producers  (134  cows)  .... 
2.   Medium  producers  (133  cows)  

529.1 
420.6 
338  9 

$79.10 
71.08 
65.95 

$87.72 
63.01 
42  17- 

7161 
6574 
6084 

7.39 
6.40 
5.57 

$2.33 
2.04 
1.78 

Differences  between  1  and  3  
In  per  cent  

190.2 
56 

13.15- 
20 

45.55 
108 

1077 
18 

1.82 
32 

.55 
31 

While  the  difference  in  the  average  production  of  butter  fat  by 
groups  1  and  3  amounted  to  190.2  pounds,  or  56  per  cent,  calculated 
on  the  production  of  group  3,  the  cost  of  feed  for  the  two  groups 
increased  only  20  per  cent,  and  that  of  total  number  of  feed  units 
18  per  cent.  The  differences  in  net  returns  (the  value  of  products 
above  cost  of  feed),  on  the  other  hand,  amounted  to  108  per  cent, 
and  100  feed  units  produced  31  to  32  per  cent  more  butter  fat  or 
value  of  products  in  case  of  group  1  compared  with  group  3;  that 
is,  the  best  cows  made  the  largest  production  at  a  relatively  much 
lower  feed  cost;  hence  the  percentage  increase  in  the  net  returns 
secured  was  much  greater  than  that  in  butter  fat,  viz.,  108  per 
cent  above  that  for  the  lowest  lot.  The  number  of  feed  units  con- 
sumed in  the  rations  fed  was  increased  by  only  18  per  cent,  and 
the  efficiency  of  the  rations  calculated  per  100  feed  units  was 
increased  by  over  30  per  cent. . 

The  same  lesson  is  taught  still  more  strikingly  by  the  results 
obtained  with  the  best  ten  and  the  poorest  ten  cows  in  the  competi- 
tion (Fig.  45)  ;  the  feed  of  the  former  cost  $114.66  per  head  for 
the  year,  while  the  net  returns  were  $124.29,  or  52  per  cent;  the 
feed  of  the  latter  cost  $61.10,  and  the  net  returns  were  $14.89,  or 
only  20  per  cent. 

The  preceding  results  were  obtained  with  excellent  dairy  cows, 
of  families  that  had  been  bred  persistently  for  a  large  milk  pro- 
duction for  many  generations.  Cows  of  this  type  respond  to 
heavier  feeding  by  an  increased  milk  production;  other  cows  of 
different  breeding,  or  bred  for  beef  production,  would  gain  in  body 

11  Wisconsin  Bulletin  226,  p.  22. 


236 


PRINCIPLES  OF  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 


flesh  by  such  feeding,  and  their  milk  production  would  be  likely 
to  suffer  if  forced  by  liberal  feeding  (Fig.  46).  Nearly  all  dairy 
herds  that  have  not  been  carefully  culled  will  contain  a  considerable 
proportion  of  the  latter  kind  of  cows;  in  feeding  a  herd  the  in- 


NET  RETURNS 

$  l24.2-2  OR  52% 


BEST  TEN  COWS 


POOREST  TEN  COWS 


FIG.  45. — The  areas  of  the  circles  represent  the  average  values  of  the  products  from 
the  best  ten  or  the  poorest  ten  cows  in  the  Wisconsin  Dairy  Cow  Competition,  1909-11. 
(Wisconsin  Station.) 


MAINTENANCE 
RATION  ONLY 


INSUFFICIENT 
RATION 

LIBERAL  RATION  FED 
TO  GOODDAIRrCOW5 


MAINTENANCE 


MAINTENANCE      MILK  PRODUCTION 


MAINTENANCE      MILK  PRODUCTION 


MAINTENANCE     MILK  PRODUCTION  GAIN  IN  WEIGHT 
LIBERAL  RATION  FED 
TO   BEEF  COW5 

FIG.  46. — Liberal  rations  fed  to  cows  of  beefy  tendencies  produce  a  gain  in  weight;  such 
fed  to  good  dairy  cows  produce  the  largest  production  of  milk  of  which  they  are  capable. 
(Van  Norman.) 

dividual  cows  must,  therefore,  be  carefully  watched  lest  they  be 
fattened  by  the  system  of  feeding  adopted  instead  of  increasing 
in  their  milk  production.  Eegular  weighing  of  cows,  say  once  a 
month  or  oftener,  is  a  valuable  aid  in  the  management  of  a  dairy 


FEEDING  DAIRY  CATTLE 


237 


herd,  as  it  furnishes  definite  information  as  to  changes  in  the 
body  weight  of  individual  cows  that  may  occur. 

Improvement  of  Dairy  Herds. — The  most  important  factor  to 
be  ascertained  by  a  dairy  farmer  is  whether  the  cows  he  is  feeding 
are  of  the  dairy  type  and  capable  of  a  good  dairy  production,  or 
are  what  are  termed  "boarders" — cows  whose  milk  production  is 
barely  sufficient  to  pay  for  the  feed  they 
eat.  This  can  only  be  determined  by 
testing  the  individual  herds  for  produc- 
tion, by  means  of  a  milk  scale  (Fig. 
47)  and  a  Babcock  tester  (Fig.  48). 
This  work  may  be  done  by  the  farmer 
himself  or  by  joining  a  cow-testing  asso- 
ciation, or  by  having  official  tests  con- 
ducted under  the  direction  of  the  State 
Agricultural  College  in  cooperation 
with  the  respective  breed  associations. 
Only  cows  that  come  up  to  a  certain 
standard  of  production  of  milk  or  butter 
fat  should  be  retained  in  the  herd.  This 
may  be  gradually  increased  from  250  to 
300,  350,  or  even  400  pounds  butter  fat 
a  year.  Cows  that  do  not  reach  the 
standard  are  disposed  of  as  opportunity 
offers,  unless  they  give  promise  of  doing 
better  in  the  future,  as  their  have  no 
place  in  the  dairy  herd. 

Low  producers  eat  considerably  more 
feed  per  unit  of  production  than  high- 
producing  cows,  and  are  not  capable  of 
an  economical  production.  Investiga- 
tions of  dairy  herds  at  a  number  FIG  47  _The  spring  milk.scale 

Of     experiment     Stations12     have     Clearly      enables  the  farmer  to  keep  accurate 

J       milk  records  of  his  cows  with  but 


very  little  extra  effort.  (Ottawa  sta- 
tion) . 


. 
demonstrated     the     futility     of     making 

dairying  pay  at  present  high  prices 
for  feed  and  labor,  with  cows  other  than  of  the  strict  dairy  type,  that 
are  good  individuals;  they  may  be  pure-breds,  high  grade,  grade, 
or  natives,  according  to  the  resources  and  the  business  ability  of 
the  farmer,  but  they  must  have  inbred  dairy  tendencies  and  be 
able  to  consume  large  amounts  of  feed  without  growing  fat.  Ac- 
cording to  the  experience  of  dairy  experts,  most  farmers  do  not 

12  See  Minnesota  Bulletin  35;  Connecticut  (Storrs)  Bulletin  29;  Illinois 
Circular  106;  Wisconsin  Bulletins  102,  200,  and  226. 


238 


PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


feed  their  cows  to  the  limit  of  economical  production,  and  do  not  try 
to  ascertain  whether  their  cows  are  capable  of  making  an  increased 
production  (Fig.  49).  Until  this  is  done,  dairy  farming,  which 
is  one  of  the  most  profitable  branches  of  agriculture  and  animal 
husbandry,  will  not  yield  adequate  returns  for  the  labor  it  requires. 


•ming,"  Davis.) 

Amount  of  Feed  Eaten  Annually  by  Dairy  Cows. — The  table 
given  below  shows  the  amount  of  different  feeds  eaten  during  the 
year,  by  cows  in  the  dairy  herds  of  nine  experiment  stations,  with 
production  of  milk  and  butter  fat  as  well  as  feed  cost,  according 
to  Henry.13  The  estimated  feed  units  have  been  added  by  the 

Annual  Feed  Requirements  of  the  Dairy  Cow  as  Found  by  Nine  Stations  * 


Station 

Num- 
ber of 
years 

Pas- 
ture, 
days 

Con- 
cen- 
trates, 
pounds 

Feed  eaten 

Aver- 
cost 
of  feed 
per 
cow 

Returns 

Esti- 
mated 
feed 
units 

Soiling 
crops 
roots, 
or 
silage, 
pounds 

Hay, 

pounds 

Milk, 
pounds 

Fat, 
pounds 

Connecticut.  .  . 
New  Jersey  
Michigan  
Wisconsin..  .  .  . 
Minnesota  
Missouri  
Utah  

5 
6 
1 
3 
1 
1 
1 
2 
5 

152 
168 
139 
180 
131 
191 
187 
150 
153 

2029 
2624 
2774 
1914 
3435 
3027 
1976 
1169 
1305 

8694 
16753 
3638 
9448 
5306 

3692 

1830 
1825 
3986 
1200 
2029 
4380 
2347 
6468 
4518 

$53.46 
44.68 
35.96 
37.68 
37.82 
3530 
31.61 
32.45 
21.43 

5498 
6165 
7009 
7061 
6408 
5927 
8783 
5993 
5601 

279 

277 
260 
299 
301 
248 
339 
250 
237 

5730 
7836 
5964 
5769 
6439 
6327 
5635 
5903 
5094 

Montana  
Nebraska  

Average  for 
"  nine  herds 

25 

161 

2250 

5281 

3076 

$36.71 

6494 

277 

6077 

*  Connecticut  Bulletin  29;  New  Jersey  Reports,  1897-1904;  Michigan  Bulletin  166; 
Wisconsin  Reports,  1905-7;  Minnesota  Bulletin  35;  Missouri  Bulletin  26;  Utah  Bulletin  68; 
Montana  Reports,  1905;  Nebraska  Bulletin  101. 


13 "  Feeds  and  Feeding,"  10th  ed.,  p.  427. 


FEEDING  DAIRY  CATTLE  239 

author  and  also  the  average  figures  for  the  nine  stations,  includ- 
ing, in  the  aggregate,  twenty -five  years  for  the  herds  considered. 

The  system  of  feeding  adopted  in  the  herds  included  in  the 
preceding  compilation  varied  greatly,  both  in  kinds  of  feeds  and 
intensity  of  feeding.  The  average  figures  give,  however,  quite  a 
satisfactory  statement  of  the  actual  feed  requirements  of  dairy 
cows  as  fed  in  this  country.  We  note  that  these  herds  ranged  in 
the  amount  of  milk  produced  from  5498  pounds  in  Connecticut 
(largely  Jerseys  and  Guernseys)  to  8783  pounds  in  Utah  (grades), 
and  in  butter  fat  from  237  pounds  in  Nebraska  (largely  Jerseys  and 
Holsteins)  to  339  pounds  in  Utah;  the  average  production  for  all 
nine  herds  was  6494  pounds  of  milk  and  277  pounds  of  butter  fat.14 
The  average  feed  per  cow  for  all  herds  was  2250  pounds  qf  concen- 

RELATION  OF  DIGESTIBLE    MATTER 

AND  PROTEIN  TOTOTAL  DRY  MATTER 

j N  RATIONS  FOR 

1200  POUND  Cows 


FOR  COWS  PRODUCING   1.5-1,75  LB 5.  BUTTER  FAT  DAILY 


DRY  MATTER 


FIG.  49. — Production  and  size  are  the  factors  determining  the  feed  requirements  of 
dairy  cows.  The  amounts  of  dry  matter  and  digestible  protein  in  feed  rations  should  increase 
in  proportion  to  the  production  of  butter  fat. 

trates,  5281  pounds  of  succulent  feeds  (soiling  crops,  roots,  and 
silage),  3076  pounds  of  hay  (mixed  timothy,  clover,  or  alfalfa),  and 
161  pasture  days,  the  average  feed  cost  per  cow  being  $36.71  (see 
p.  229),  and  the  number  of  feed  units  eaten,  6077.  These  figures 
will  serve  as  a  basis  for  estimating  the  actual  feed  requirements  of 
dairy  cows  in  this  country  and  the  returns  that  may  be  expected 
with  good  cows  and  careful  management. 

Feeding  Standards. — The  feeding  standards  for  dairy  cows 

14  Corresponding  to  323  pounds  of  commercial  butter,  obtained  by  add- 
ing one-sixth  to  the  amount  of  butter  fat,  which  is  a  safe  average  estimate. 


240 


PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


according  to  Wolff-Lehmann  and  Armsby  are  given  at  the  begin- 
ning of  this  chapter.  The  former  standards  have  been  modified 
by  Haecker,15  who  has  calculated  the  amounts  of  digestible  protein, 
carbohydrates,  and  fat  required  for  the  production  of  a  pound  of 
milk  testing  3  to  6.5  per  cent  as  follows : 

Requirements  for  Milk  of  Different  Richness 

Digestible 


T>  ^Q-«           Carbohydrates 
and  fat  * 

For  in8.int6ii3.iic6  p6r  1000 

pounds     

.700                7.225 

Per  pound  of  milk  testing 

3     per  cent  
4     per  cent      

.047                  .238 
.054                  .287 

5     per  cent      

.060                  .334 

6     per  cent  
6.5  per  cent  

.067                  .383 
.072                  .405 

*  Given  separately  in  Haecker's  standards. 

In  addition  to  giving  digestible  protein,  carbohydrates,  and  fat 
to  the  third  decimal  place,  Haecker  calculates  the  requirements 
per  pound  of  milk  for  differences  in  fat  contents  of  only  0.1 
of  1  per  cent  between  3.0  and  6.5  per  cent.  In  view  of  the 
great  differences  in  the  returns  made  by  different  cows  from  the 
feed  eaten,  and  the  great  variations  to  which  feeding  stuffs  are 
subject,  both  as  regards  composition  and  digestibility,  it  would 
seem  rather  unnecessary  to  make  such  fine  distinctions.  Eckles  16 
has  modified  the  Armsby  standards  according  to  the  fat  content 
of  the  milk  produced,  allowing  0.05  to  0.07  pound  digestible  pro- 
tein and  0.26  to  0.45  therm  per  pound  of  milk  testing  3  to  6  per 
cent  (p.  39). 

The  American  Practical  Feeding  Ration. — The  author  pub- 
lished in  the  nineties  the  following  so-called  "  American  Practical 
Feeding  Ration  "  for  dairy  cows,  as  a  result  of  studies  of  the  methods 
of  feeding  and  the  experiences  of  more  than  one  hundred  promi- 
nent American  dairy  farmers  with  regard  to  the  amounts  and 
character  of  the  feed  which  will  be  likely  to  give  the  best  and  most 
economical  results  under  our  conditions  when  fed  to  good  dairy 
cows  in  full  flow  of  milk  and  of  an  average  weight  of  1000  pounds : 17 


15  Minnesota  Bulletin  130. 
"Missouri  Research  Bulletin  7. 
17  Wisconsin  Bulletin  38. 


FEEDING  DAIRY  CATTLE 


241 


Dry  matter 24.15  pounds. 

Digestible  protein   2.15  pounds. 

Digestible  carbohydrates  and  fat 14.5     pounds. 

Nutritive  ratio 1  :  6.9 

Feeding  Table  for  Dairy  Cows. — While  not  formulated  as  a 
standard,  Professor  Humphrey  and  the  author,  in  1911,  published 
a  table  showing  at  a  glance  the  quantities  of  dry  matter  and  di- 
gestible components  required  daily  by  dairy  cows  of  800  to  1500 
pounds  body  weight,  and  producing  from  less  than  one-half  pound 
to  over  two  pounds  butter  fat  per  day.18  This  table  is  based  chiefly 
on  the  results  obtained  in  investigations  with  the  dairy  herd  of 
the  Wisconsin  station  for  a  period  of  nine  years. 

The  figures  for  1000-pound  cows  are  shown  in  the  table : 

Feed  Requirements  for  1000-pound  Dairy  Cows  Producing  0.5  to  2.0  Pounds 
Butter  Fat  Per  Day,  in  Pounds 


Dry 
matter 

Digestible 
protein 

Total 
digestible 
matter 

Dairy  cows  (maintenance) 

125 

70 

79 

Production  of  butter  fat  per  day  : 
Less  than  0.5  pound      

16.2 

1  18 

106 

0.5  to  0.75  pound        

18.7 

1.49 

12  3 

0.75  to  1.0  pound  
1.0  to  1.25  pounds  
1.25  to  1.5  pounds  

21.1 
23.6 
26.0 

1.80 
2.11 
2.43 

14.1 

15.8 
17.6 

1  5  to  1  75  pounds 

285 

2  74 

19  3 

1.75  to  2  0  pounds 

309 

305 

21  1 

The  composition  of  a  certain  combination  of  feeds  may  be 
readily  compared  with  the  requirements  of  cows  of  different  body 
weight  and  productive  capacities,  as  shown  in  this  table,  and 
rations  thus  formulated  which  will  contain  approximately  the 
amounts  of  dry  matter  and  digestible  protein  required  for  a  cer- 
tain production  of  butter  fat.  The  corresponding  amounts  of 
digestible  carbohydrates  and  fat  may  be  readily  found  by  subtract- 
ing the  amount  of  digestible  protein  from  that  of  total  digestible 
matter,  and  the  nutritive  ratio  by  dividing  this  difference  by  the 
amount  of  digestible  protein. 

Example:  A  1000-pound  cow  producing  1.3  pounds  butter  fat  per  day 
was  fed  as  follows:  10  pounds  alfalfa  hay,  25  pounds  corn  silage,  10  pounds 
of  a  grain  mixture  composed  of  corn,  oats,  and  wheat  middlings,  in  the 
proportion  of  2:  2:  1.  This  ration  contains  the  amounts  of  total  digestible 
matter  and  energy  values  as  given  below,  on  the  supposition  that  the  feeds 
are  of  average  composition  and  digestibility. 

"Wisconsin  Bulletin  200;  see  also  Woll,  Handbook,  p.  19&. 
16 


242 


PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


Composition  of  Ration  for  Dairy  Cows,  in  Pounds 


Dry 

matter 

Digestible 

Digestible 
true 
protein 

Energy 
values, 
therms 

Protein 

Carbohy- 
drates 
and  fat 

10  pounds  alfalfa  hay  .  .  . 
25  pounds  corn  silage  .  .  . 
4  pounds  oats 

9.2 
6.6 
3.6 
3.6 

1.8 

1.10 

.30 
.37 
.32 

.25 
2.34 

4.2 
4.5 
2.3 
3.1 

1.2 
15.3 

.69 
.22 
.33 
.27 

.26 

3.44 
4.14 
2.65 
3.55 

1.55 

4  pounds  corn 

2  pounds  wheat  mid- 
dlings   

Total  

24.8 

1.77 

15.33 

According  to  the  Armsby  standard  modified  by  Eckles,  this  cow,  if  pro- 
ducing, say,  30  pounds  of  milk  testing  4.03  per  cent,  should  receive : 

Digestible  Energy 
protein,        value, 

pounds  therms 

For  maintenance 5  6.0 

For  production 1.62  8.6 


Total    2.12 


14.6 


The  cow  did  not,  therefore,  receive  as  much  protein  or  as  many  therms 
of  energy  values  in  the  ratio  given  as  called  for  by  the  standard;  but  the 
difference  is  very  likely  apparent  rather  than  real,  since  it  will  be  found,  on 
examination,  that  the  digestible  true  protein  in  alfalfa  hay,  according  to  the 
table,  is  very  low,  and  probably  lower  than  the  actual  content  in  average 
alfalfa  hay,  which  contains  1.10  per  cent  digestible  crude  protein. 

By  the  use  of  the  table  (p.  241)  we  find  that  the  cow  should  receive  26 
pounds  dry  matter,  2.4  pounds  digestible  protein,  and  15.2  pounds  digestible 
non-nitrogenous  components.  These  amounts  agree  closely  with  the  cal- 
culated composition  of  the  ration,  showing  that  this  would  furnish  an 
ample  supply  of  nutrients  for  a  1000-pound  cow  producing  about  1.3  pounds 
butter  fat  a  day.  According  to  the  Haecker  standard/9  the  cow  would  be  en- 
titled to  the  following  amounts  of  nutrients : 

Digestible  Carbohy- 
protein,  drates  and 
pounds  fat,  pounds 

For  maintenance 70  7.0 

For  production 1.62  8.7 


Total 2.32 


15.9 


Also,  in  this  case,  there  is  a  close  agreement  between  the  standard  and 
the  composition  of  the  ration  calculated  according  to  the  average  composition 
of  the  various  feeding  stuffs. 

Feeding  the  Dairy  Heifer. — The  practice  of  good  dairy  farmers 
as  to  the  time  of  breeding  heifers  differs  considerably.  The  best 
results  may,  however,  be  expected  by  breeding  so  that  the  heifer 


19  Minnesota  Bulletin  130. 


FEEDING  DAIRY  CATTLE  243 

will  come  in  at  about  two  years  of  age.  As  the  time  of  parturition 
approaches,  the  feeding  of  the  heifer  should  be  plain,  without  stimu- 
lating feeds  that  may  have  a  deleterious  influence  on  the  fcetus  and 
cause  abortion,  as  fermented  or  decayed  feeds. 

Good,  clean  hay  from  clover  or  mixed  grasses,  corn  fodder,  corn 
silage  (made  from  well-matured  corn  and  fed  in  moderate  quanti- 
ties, not  to  exceed  20  pounds  a  day),  or  roots  should  form  the  main 
reliance;  preferably  both  dry  and  succulent  roughage  is  fed,  and, 
in  addition,  small  amounts  of  ground  oats,  bran,  shorts,  gluten 
feed  or  corn,  the  last  feed  being  given  only  when  the  heifer  is  in 
poor  flesh.  Shortly  before  calving,  the  feeding  of  all  grain  feeds, 
except,  perhaps,  about  two  pounds  of  bran,  is  discontinued.  Directly 
after  calving,  lukewarm  water  only,  or  a  warm,  thin  slop  of  oatmeal, 
bran,  or  shorts,  is  given  for  a  few  days  until  the  danger  of  milk 
fever  is  over;  the  amount  of  feed  given  should  be  very  light,  and 
then  gradually  increased  for  two  to  three  weeks,  when  the  cow  may 
be  put  on  full  feed.  By  this  time,  or  before,  the  maximum  produc- 
tion of  butter  fat,  and  generally  also  of  milk,  will  be  reached. 

A  heifer  with  her  first  calf  should  receive  special  care  and  be 
fed  liberally,  since  she  is  growing  and  producing  milk  at  the  same 
time.  A  good  supply  of  protein  feeds  must  be  furnished  in  her 
ration  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  body  for  nitrogenous  com- 
ponents. Corn  meal  is  especially  valuable  at  this  time  for  heifers 
that  show  a  tendency  to  "  milk  their  flesh  off."  The  heavy  feeding 
should  be  continued  up  to  drying-off  prior  to  the  second  calving. 
A  persistent  milking  habit  is  favored  by  continuing  to  milk  the 
heifer  for  about  ten  months  during  the  first  lactation  period,  if 
possible. 

Summer  Feeding  of  Dairy  Cows. — The  favorable  influence  of 
early  summer  pasturage  on  the  milk  secretion  of  cows,  both  as  re- 
gards yield  and  quality,  and,  more  especially,  its  fat  content,  has 
been  known  to  observing  dairy  farmers  so  long  as  milk  records 
have  been  kept  or  tests  of  milk  have  been  made.  Ample  pasturage 
is  one  of  the  essentials  of  successful  dairy  farming,  where  the  soil- 
ing system  or  feeding  of  summer  silage  is  not  practised.  During 
the  early  part  of  the*  season  the  cows  will,  as  a  rule,  find  a  sufficient 
supply  of  feed  on  pasture  alone,  but  later  it  will  often  be  necessary 
to  supplement  the  pasture  with  soiling  crops  or  summer  silage, 
or,  if  neither  is  available,  to  feed  grain  feeds.  The  feeding  of  grain 
to  cows  on  pasture  is,  in  general,  only  profitable  when  there  is  a 
scarcity  of  pasturage  (p.  94).  In  the  case  of  heavy  milkers  it  will, 
however,  be  advantageous  to  feed  at  least  a  few  pounds  of  wheat 


244  PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

bran,  or  wheat  bran  and  oats,  throughout  the  season,  in  order  to 
enable  them  to  maintain  a  maximum  production. 

The  use  of  soiling  crops  or  summer  silage  on  dairy  farms  is  an 
important  feature  of  intensive  dairy  farming,  as  two  to  three  times 
as  much  green  forage  may  be  secured  per  acre  by  this  system  as  by 
pasturing;  it  also  enables  the  farmer  to  maintain,  so  far  as  possible, 
the  milk  production  of  his  herd  during  late  summer,  when  hot 
weather  and  flies  combine  to  reduce  the  production  of  the  cows, 
both  for  the  time  being  and  for  the  balance  of  the  lactation  period. 
A  variety  of  soiling  crops  is  fed  in  different  sections :  Corn,  alfalfa, 
peas  and  oats,  rye,  rape,  etc.  (see  p.  96).  Some  of  these  crops, 
such  as  rye,  rape,  and  oats,  should  be  fed  with  care  in  small  quanti- 
ties at  the  start,  and  always  after  milking,  so  that  they  will  not 
taint  the  milk  or  the  products  made  therefrom. 

Summer  silage  is  a  highly-prized  feed  on  many  American  dairy 
farms.  Generally  a  small,  separate  silo  is  filled  in  the  fall  for  the 
purpose  of  feeding  the  silage  in  late  summer,  when  drouth  and 
hot  weather  are  likely  to  cause  serious  damage  to  the  pasture.  The 
most  common  silage  crops  are  corn,  alfalfa,  and  red  clover, — corn 
being  of  most  importance  in  the  greater  portion  of  our  dairy  sec- 
tions. Thirty  pounds  of  soiling  crops  or  silage  are  an  average 
allowance  for  dairy  cows  on  poor  pastures ;  as  much  as  sixty  pounds 
of  soiling  crops  or  forty  pounds  of  silage  may  be  fed  in  the  case  of 
large  cows  during  seasons  of  drought  when  pastures  are  scant. 

Winter  Feeding  of  Dairy  Cows. — The  cows  are  fed  in  the 
stable  during  one-half  of  the  year,  or  more  in  the  North,  and,  as 
the  system  of  feeding  during  this  period  is  necessarily  most  ex- 
pensive, the  profit  of  the  dairy  will  depend,  to  a  large  extent,  on 
the  economy  of  the  winter  feeding.  Economical  feeding  in  cases 
of  good  dairy  cows  does  not  mean  scant  supplies,  but  the  kind  of 
feeds  and  feed  combinations  that  will  be  likely  to  produce  best  re- 
sults for  the  least  money.  Only  cows  that  respond  to  liberal  feed- 
ing and  are  fed  liberally  will  prove  profitable  dairy  animals. 

Succulent  feeds  should  be  provided  for  dairy  cows  during  their 
entire  lactation  period  whenever  possible;  silage  and  roots  are  the 
main  available  feeds  of  this  character  during  the  winter  period, 
and  in  corn-growing  sections,  at  least,  the  former  has  been  found 
to  yield  the  largest  and  cheapest  amounts  of  feed  materials  per 
unit  of  area.  Roots  are,  however,  valuable  substitutes  where  there 
is  no  silo  on  the  farm;  they  are  fed  especially  in  Canada  and  by 
farmers  who  adhere  more  or  less  to  European  methods  of  agri- 
culture. In  the  case  of  heavy  producers  and  cows  "  out  of  condi- 


FEEDING  DAIRY  CATTLE  245 

tion,"  roots  are  often  fed  to  animals  on  account  of  their  dietetic 
effect,  as  appetizers,  and  because  of  their  favorable  influence  on  the 
digestion. 

The  silo  enables  dairy  farmers  to  utilize  the  large  supply  of 
feed  materials  in  the  corn  plant  with  the  least  possible  loss  and 
expense.  For  this  reason,  and  because  of  the  advantage  of  having 
a  palatable,  highly  nutritious  and  relished  succulent  feed  conve- 
niently at  hand  throughout  the  season,  the  silo  is  now  generally 
regarded  as  next  to  a  necessity  on  dairy  farms,  at  least  where  corn 
is  grown.  The  whole  corn  plant,  ears  and  all,  is,  as  a  rule,  run 
through  a  feed  cutter,  this  having  been  found  the  most  economical 
method  of  handling  the  crop.  The  corn  is  harvested  when  nearly 
ripe,  and  cut  into  one-half  to  three-fourth  inch  lengths  in  filling 
the  silo  (p.  156). 

Silage  is  greatly  relished  by  cows  and  can  be  fed  in  large  quanti- 
ties, if  made  from  nearly-matured  corn.  Ordinarily,  the  best  re- 
sults are  obtained  when  not  over  30  to  40  pounds  of  corn  silage 
are  fed  per  head  daily,  according  to  the  size  of  the  cows,  and  it  is 
always  fed  with  some  dry  roughage,  either  hay  or  corn  fodder. 
Since  the  corn  plant  is  rich  in  carbohydrates,  protein  feeds  like 
clover  hay,  wheat  bran,  or  oil  meal  should  always  be  fed  with  corn 
silage  or  corn  fodder.  Clover  silage,  or  silage  made  from  alfalfa, 
grain  sorghums,  etc.,  is  fed  in  somewhat  smaller  quantities  than 
corn  silage,  the  daily  allowance  being  less  than  25  to  30  pounds  per 
head. 

Dry  Roughage. — Hay  from  the  grasses  or  legumes  is  a  common 
coarse  cow  feed  in  this  and  other  dairy  countries.  Early-cut  hay  is 
more  valuable,  ton  for  ton,  than  late-cut,  but  the  yield  obtained  will 
be  somewhat  lower  in  the  former  case.  Clover  hay,  or  hay  of  other 
legumes,  stands  first  in  value  as  dry  roughage  for  dairy  cows  (Fig. 
50).  It  is  preferably  fed  long.  Pure  timothy  hay  is  a  poor  cow 
feed,  especially  if  late-cut;  mixed  timothy  and  clover  hay  is  the 
more  valuable  for  cows  the  less  timothy  it  contains.  Other  kinds 
of  hay  that  are  fed  and  relished  by  dairy  stock  are  oat  hay,  millet 
hay,  sorghum  hay,  pea  hay,  etc.  Corn  stover  (cornstalks)  and 
corn  fodder  are  fed  whole  or  are  cut  or  shredded  on  the  best-managed 
farms  after  having  been  shocked  in  the  field  (p.  129). 

Straw  of  the  small  grains  is  not  often  fed  to  dairy  cows  in  this 
country,  as  we  have  an  abundant  and  cheap  supply  of  roughage  in 
cornstalks.  Where  a  quantity  of  fine,  bright  oat  straw  is  available, 
it  may  be  fed  in  moderate  quantities,  not  to  exceed  one-half  the 
weight  of  total  dry  roughage  fed. 


246  PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

Concentrates. — The  common  concentrates  used  on  American 
dairy  farms  are  cereals  and  mill-refuse  feeds,  starch  or  glucose  ref- 
use feeds,  brewers'  and  distillers'  feeds,  and  oil  meals,  especially 
linseed  and  cotton-seed  meals.  The  amounts  of  these  feeds  that 
can  be  fed  to  dairy  cows  with  profit  will  depend  upon  the  price  of 
the  feeds,  the  production  of  the  cows,  and  the  prices  obtained 
for  the  dairy  products.  In  general,  the  carbohydrates  of  feed 
rations  are  supplied  by  farm-grown  crops,  while  nitrogenous  feeds 
are  largely  purchased,  except,  when  leguminous  crops  are  grown. 
By  the  culture  of  crops  of  the  latter  class  the  amount  of  protein 
feeds  that  it  will  be  necessary  to  purchase  will  be  reduced  to  a 
minimum.  Bran  may  be  partially  replaced,  nearly  ton  for  ton,  by 
carefully-cured  alfalfa  hay,  or  by  six  tons  of  pea-vine  silage  to 


FIG.  50. — Alfalfa  is,  as  a  rule,  fed  in  racks  in  the  corrals  (feeding  yards)  to  milch  cows  in 
the  Western  States. 

five  of  bran.  Roughly  speaking,  the  cereals  may  be  considered 
of  equal  feeding  value  for  dairy  cows,  and  of  similar  value  to  bran 
or  shorts,  in  rations  as  ordinarily  fed.  Cotton-seed  meal,  gluten 
meal,  and  linseed  meal  likewise  possess  nearly  equal  value,  with  the 
first  two  feeds  occasionally  ahead.  The  comparative  value  of  feed- 
ing stuffs  depends,  however,  to  a  large  extent  on  the  combination 
in  which  they  are  fed,  a  starchy  feed  being  of  greater  value  to  a 
farmer  having  a  good  supply  of  protein  feeds  than  to  one  who  has 
mainly  starchy  feeds  to  select  from.  The  feed-unit  system  fur- 
nishes a  convenient  and  very  satisfactory  method  of  comparing 
the  value  of  different  kinds  of  feeds  for  dairy  cows  (p.  79). 

The  quantities  of  grain  feeds  fed  by  American  dairy  farmers 
vary  considerably,  from  a  few  pounds  to  fifteen  or  more  pounds 


FEEDING  DAIRY  CATTLE  247 

per  head  daily  (Figs.  51  and  52).  Only  exceptionally  large  pro- 
ducers will  give  good  returns  for  more  than  six  or  eight  pounds  of 
grain  feed  daily,  with  abundant  roughage  of  good  quality  at  hand. 
A  common  rule  is  to  feed  as  many  pounds  of  grain  feeds  a  day  per 
head  as  the  cows  produce  pounds  of  butter  fat  during  the  week, 
and  to  feed  as  much  roughage  in  addition  as  they  will  eat  up 
clean. 


FIG.  51. — The  "meal  cart"  used  for  weighing  concentrates  for  the  individual  cows  in  the 
herd.     (Ottawa  Station.) 

Rations  for  Dairy  Cows. — It  is  important,  in  making  up 
rations  for  dairy  cows,  as  for  other  classes  of  farm  animals,  to  see 
to  it  that  a  liberal  amount  of  easily  digestible  substances  is  sup- 
plied; nearly  one-half  of  the  dry  matter  of  the  ration  should  be 
given  in  the  form  of  concentrated  feeds  in  case  of  milch  cows,  the 
amount  fed  being  governed  primarily  by  the  production  of  the 
cows.  No  moldy  or  decayed  feeds  should  be  fed,  and,  in  the  case  of 
wet  feeds,  particular  attention  must  be  given  to  keeping  clean  the 
mangers  and  the  premises  about  the  stable.  A  variety  of  feeds  is 


248 


PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


always  fed,  often  as  many  as  half  a  dozen  different  ones,  so  as  to 
stimulate  the  appetites  of  the  cows;  the  modern  dairy  cow  is  a 
product  of  special-purpose  breeding  and  high  feeding,  and,  unless 
special  pains  is  taken  to  cater  to  her  wants,  she  will  not  be  able  to 
reach  and  maintain  the  high  standard  of  production  which  may  be 
reasonably  expected  of  her  (Figs.  53,  54,  55,  and  56). 

The  following  rations  for  milch  cows  are  given  as  samples  of 
the  system  of  feeding  adapted  to  the  conditions  in  different  sections 
of  our  country : 

1.  Hay,  20  pounds;  oats,  3  pounds;  corn  and  cob  meal,  3 
pounds;  linseed  meal,  2  pounds. 


FIG.  52. — Weighing  rations  for  the  dairy  herd.     The  cows  receive  seven  pounds  of  grain  per 
pound  of  butter  fat  produced.      (Wisconsin  Station.) 

2.  Hay,  10  pounds;  cornstalks,  ad  lib.;  wheat  bran,  3  pounds; 
corn  meal,  2  pounds;  cotton-seed  meal,  2  pounds. 

3.  Roots,  60  pounds;  stover,  ad  lib.;  oats,  3  pounds;  bran,  3 
pounds;  gluten  feed,  3  pounds. 

4.  Corn  fodder,  ad  lib.;  corn  silage,  40  pounds ;  shorts,  2  pounds ; 
dried  brewers'  grains,  2  pounds ;  linseed  meal,  2  pounds. 

5.  Corn  silage,  35  pounds;  hay,  ad  lib.;  bran,  4  pounds;  oats, 
2  pounds;  gluten  meal,  2  pounds. 

6.  Corn  silage,  30  pounds;  hay,  ad  lib.;  oats,  4  pounds;  linseed 
meal,  2  pounds;  cotton-seed  meal,  1  pound. 

7.  Corn  silage,  30  pounds;  clover  hay,  ad  lib.;  bran,  oats,  and 
corn  meal,  2  pounds  each. 


FEEDING  DAIRY  CATTLE 


249 


FIQ.  53.— Yeksa  Sunbeam,  No.  15439,  Guernsey.  The  first  cow  to  produce  the  equiva- 
lent to  1000  pounds  of  butter  in  one  year  on  a  semi-official  test.  Record,  14,920.8  pounds 
milk,  857.15  pounds  butter  fat;  average  test,  4.74  per  cent. 


FIG.  54. — Colantha  4th  Johanna,  No.  48577,  Holstein.  The  first  cow  to  produce  over 
4  pounds  butter  fat  daily  in  a  7-day  official  test  and  close  to  1000  pounds  butter  fat  in  one 
year  on  a  semi-offirial  test.  Record,  27,432.5  pounds  milk,  998.26  pounds  butter  fat,  equiv- 
alent to  about  1165  pounds  commercial  butter;  average  test,  3.64  per  cent. 


250  PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


FIG.  55. — May  Rilma,  No.  22761,  Guernsey,  holds  the  record  for  highest  production 
of  butter  fat  by  a  dairy  cow  for  one  year  (1914):  1073.41  pounds  butter  fat  from  19,673 
pounds  milk;  average  test,  5.46  per  cent. 


FIG.  56. — Tilly  Alcartra,  No.  123459,  Holstein,  holds  the  record  for  the  highest  pro- 
duction of  milk  for  one  year  by  a  dairy  cow:  30,451.4  pounds  milk,  951.2  pounds  butter  fat; 
average  test,  3.12  per  cent. 


FEEDING  DAIRY  CATTLE  251 

8.  Clover  silage,  25  pounds;  hay,  5  pounds;  cornstalks,  ad  lib.; 
oats,  3  pounds ;  corn  meal  and  linseed  meal,  2  pounds  each. 

9.  Clover  or  alfalfa  silage,  30  pounds;  hay,  ad  lib.;  bran,  4 
pounds;  middlings,  3  pounds;  linseed  meal,  1  pound. 

10.  Alfalfa  hay,  20  pounds ;  oats,  4  pounds ;  corn  meal,  2  pounds. 

11.  Hay,  20  pounds;  cotton-seed  hulls,  10  pounds;  cotton-seed 
meal,  4  pounds;  wheat  bran,  2  pounds. 

12.  Corn  silage,  40  pounds;  alfalfa  hay,  25  pounds;  barley,  4 
pounds;  dried  beet  pulp,  3  pounds;  wheat  bran,  2  pounds. 

13.  Corn  silage,  30  pounds ;  cotton-seed  hulls,  12  pounds ;  bran, 
6  pounds ;  cotton-seed  meal,  3  pounds. 

The  time  of  feeding  is  also  important.  The  feeding  should 
be  as  regular  as  the  milking.  Many  farmers  feed  either  hay  or 
grain  feeds  directly  before  or  during  milking,  but  this  is  not,  as  a 
rule,  to  be  recommended,  both  on  account  of  the  tendency  it  has 
to  interfere  with  the  letting-down  of  the  milk,  and  the  danger  of 
contamination  of  the  milk  with  dust  and  bacteria  that  it  involves, 
especially  when  hay  is  fed  directly  before  or  during  the  milking. 

A  good  order  of  the  day's  work  in  the  dairy  barn  during  the 
winter  is  as  follows:  Cleaning  gutters,  watering,  feeding  hay, 
grooming,  and  cleaning  cows,  milking,  feeding  grain,  feeding 
silage,  turning  out  in  the  yard  (on  pleasant  days  for  one  or  two 
hours  in  the  early  afternoon),  watering,  cleaning  stable,  feeding 
grain,  cleaning  cows,  milking,  feeding  silage,  a  last  feed  of  hay 
if  desired,  and  arranging  bedding. 

Feeding  the  Dairy  Bull. — The  bull  at  the  head  of  a  dairy 
herd  should  receive  a  large  share  of  his  feed  in  the  shape  of  dry 
roughage,  hay  from  the  grasses  or  legumes,  cornstalks,  etc.,  with 
only  limited  amounts  of  concentrated  feeds.  Of  the  latter,  wheat 
bran,  shorts,  oats,  and  a  little  corn  meal  are  to  be  preferred.  Eoots 
are  good  as  a  relish,  while  corn  silage  and  other  kinds  of  silage 
should  be  fed  very  sparingly  to  breeding  bulls.  Fattening  feeds 
and  excessive  grain  feeding  should  be  avoided,  so  that  the  animal 
may  be  kept  in  a  vigorous,  active  condition.  Corn  and  other  fat- 
tening feeds  are,  for  this  reason,  to  be  fed  with  care;  high  feed- 
ing and  lack  of  exercise  are  common  causes  of  impotency  in  bulls; 
a  wrong  system  of  feeding  and  management  has  been  the  cause  of 
shortening  the  period  of  usefulness  of  many  bulls. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Give  the  average  composition  of  cow's  milk. 

2.  State  ten  factors  that  influence  the  milk  secretion  of  cows. 

3.  What  is  the  effect  of  (a)  excitement,  (&)  time  of  milking,  (c)  condition 
of  the  cow,  on  the  quality  of  the  milk  secreted? 


252  PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

4.  Name  the  six  most  important  dairy  breeds  in  this  country. 

5.  State  the  relative  rank  of  these  breeds  as  regards  (a)  yield  of  milk,  (6) 

yield  of  butter  fat,    (c)    per  cent  of  fat,    (d)    feed  cost  per  pound  of 
butter  fat,  according  to  experiment  station  trials.       £-  '*  '  ***  f* 

6.  What  is  the  normal  decrease  in  the  production  of  milk  and  butter  fat 

for  good  dairy  cows  due  to  the  advance  of  the  lactation  period? 

7.  How  does  the  feed  influence  (a)  the  quality,  (&)  the  yield  of  milk? 

8.  What  method  would  you  follow 'for  the  improvement  of  the  production 

of  the  dairy  herd? 

9.  Give  the  approximate  amounts  of  dry  roughage,  succulent  feeds,  pasture, 

concentrates  eaten  by  a  good  dairy  cow  in  the  northern  States  during 
the  year. 

10.  State  how  the  Wolff-Lehmann  standards  for  milch  cows  have  been  modi- 
fied by  Haecker. 

11.  Give  the  modified  figures  for  the  Armsby  standard  for  milch  cows  as 

suggested  by  Eckles. 

12.  Describe  briefly  the  system  of  feeding  the  dairy  heifer. 

13.  Describe  briefly  the  system  of  feeding  dairy  cows  in  your  locality   (a) 

during  the  summer,  ( & )  during  the  winter  months. 

-14.  Criticise  the  following  rations  for  dairy  cows,  and  state  how  they  may  be 
changed  to  conform  to  the  standards  for  dairy  cows: 
(a)  20  pounds  cornstalks,  10  pounds  timothy  hay,  G  pounds  corn  meal. 
( & )  20  pounds  mixed  hay,  5  pounds  oats,  3  pounds  corn  meal. 

(c)  25  pounds  alfalfa  hay. 

(d)  40  pounds  green  alfalfa,  20  pounds  alfalfa  hay. 

(e)  50  pounds  green  corn  fodder,  3  pounds  each  of  wheat  bran,  dry 
brewers'  grains,  and  oil  meal. 

(f)  30  pounds  corn  silage,  10  pounds  cornstalks,  4  pounds  corn  meal, 
and  2  pounds  oil  meal. 

Literature  on  Feeding  Dairy  Cattle. — Eckles,  "Dairy  Cattle  and 
Milk  Production,"  New  York,  1914.  Shaw,  "  Management  and  Feeding  of 
Cattle/'  New  York,  1914.  Murray,  "The  Chemistry  of  Cattle  Feeding  and 
Dairying,"  London,  1914.  Housman,  "  Cattle,  Breeds  and  Management," 
London,  1905  (see  also  p.  226) .  Alvord,  "  The  Dairy  Herd,"  Farmers'  Bulle- 
tin 55,  1904.  Haecker,  "  Feeding  Dairy  Cows,"  Minnesota  Bulletin  130,  May, 
1913.  Kildee,  "  Care,  Feed  and  Management  of  the  Dairy  Herd,"  Iowa 
Circular  16,  March,  1914. 

Experiment  Station  Bulletins  (b),  Circulars  (c),  and  Reports  (r). — 
Alabama,  b.  123,  174;  Colorado,  b.  73;  Connecticut  (Storrs),  r.  '04; 
Florida,  b.  102;  Georgia,  b.  49;  Iowa,  c.  16;  Kansas,  b.  93,  125;  r.  '88; 
Maine,  r.  '95,  '09;  Maryland,  b.  84,  98;  Massachusetts  (Hatch),  r.  '94, 
'05,  '08,  '09,  '11;  b.  50,  94,  95;  Minnesota,  35,  67,  130,  140;  Missouri  res.  b. 
7;  Mississippi,  b.  60,  70;  r.  '91,  '95,  '03;  Nebraska,  b.  44,  76;  New  Jersey,  r. 
'82,  '85,  '98,  '03,  '04,  '07;  b.  122,  123,  161,  174,  189,  190,  204;  New 
Mexico  r.  '04;  New  York  (Cornell),  b.  13,  22,  36,  49,  183,  268,  323;  New 
York  (Geneva),  b.  141;  North  Carolina,  b.  77;  North  Dakota,  b.  16;  Ohio,  c. 
128;  b.  155;  Oregon,  c.  5;  Pennsylvania,  b.  41,  52,  73,  80,  114;  r.  '81,  '92,  '95; 
Rhode  Island,  b.  77;  South  Carolina,  b.  66,  117;  South  Dakota,  b.  81; 
Tennessee,  b.  80;  vol.  17,  No.  4;  15,  No.  4;  Texas,  b.  47;  Utah,  b.  68; 
Virginia,  b.  148,  156;  Vermont,  b.  164;  r.  '92,  '95,  '01,  '03,  '04,  '06,  '07;  West 
Virginia,  b.  109;  Wisconsin,  b.  33,  38,  102,  116,  117,  200,  235;  r.  '84,  '90,  '05. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 
FEEDING  BEEF  CATTLE 

Rations  for  Beef  Cattle. — Feeding  standards  should  be  fol- 
lowed in  preparing  rations  for  beef  cattle. 

The  Wolff-Lehmann  Standards — 1000  pounds  live,  weight 


Age, 
months 

Live 
weight, 
pounds 

Dry 

matter, 
pounds 

Digestible 

N.  R. 

Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 
and  fat* 

For  growing  cattle  
For  growing  cattle  
For  fattening  cattle,  first 
period                     .    . 

12-18 

18-2  1 

750 
935 

24 
24 

30 
30 
26 

2.0 

1.8 

2.5f 
3.0f 
2.7f 

13.6 
12.9 

16.3 
16.1 
16.6 

1:6.8 
1:7.2 

1:6.5 
1:5.4 

1  :  6.2 

For  fattening  cattle,  sec- 
ond period. 

For  fattening  cattle,  third 
period 

*  Given  separately  by  W.-L.  f  Doubtless  too  high. 

The  Armsby  Standards 


Age, 
months 

Live 
weight, 
pounds 

Digestible 
true 
protein, 
pounds 

Energy 
value, 
therms 

For  growing  cattle     ....             -1 

18 
24 

850 
1000 

1.70 
1  75 

7.5 

8  0 

For  fattening  cattle  per  pound  gain  .  . 

30 

1100 

1.65 

8.0 
3.5 

Systems  of  Feeding  Beef  Cattle. — There  are  two  different  sys- 
tems followed  in  feeding  beef  cattle  in  this  country.  The  cattle 
are  either  raised  and  fattened  on  the  same  farms,  as  is  generally 
done  in  the  farming  and  grain-growing  districts,  especially  the 
corn  belt,  or  they  are  raised  and  fattened  in  different  regions.  In 
the  latter  case,  they  are  raised  and  fed  until  maturity  mainly  in 
the  grazing  districts  of  the  western  and  southwestern  States  and 
then  shipped  to  grain-  or  forage-growing  regions  to  be  fattened  for 
market.  The  relative  importance  of  the  two  systems  may  be  in- 

253 


254 


PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


f erred  from  the  accompanying  map  (Fig.  57),1  showing  the  number 
and  value  of  cattle  other  than  milch  cows  according  to  the  census  of 
1910.  The  seven  corn  belt  States  had  about  one-third  of  the  total 


RSSSS  FAR  WESTERN 

NORTH  ATLANTIC 
SOUTH  ATLANTIC 

I  I  NORTH  CENTRAI EAST 

r        I  NORTH  CENTRAL— WEST 
••  SOUTHERN  AND  GULP 


Fia.  57. — The  number  and  value  of  cattle  other  than  milch  cows  in  the  United  States, 
April  15,  1910.   (Mumford  and  Hall). 

number  of  cattle  other  than  milch  cows  in  the  United  States  (Fig. 
58)  ;  considering  the  immense  number  of  cattle  brought  in  to  be 
fattened  there,  perhaps  not  less  than  one-half  of  the  beef  cattle 


FIG.  58. — Number  of  beef  cattle  in  the  corn  belt  States,  1913.  About  one-third  of  the 
cattle  other  than  milch  cows  in  the  country  are  kept  in  these  States,  and  their  value  is  equal 
to  about  two-fifths  of  the  total  value  of  such  cattle  in  the  United  States.  (Mumford  and 
Hall,  Illinois  Circular  175.) 


1  Reproduced  from  Illinois  Circular  169. 


FEEDING  BEEF  CATTLE 


255 


industry  is  centered  in  this  section.  The  Far  West  section,  on  the 
other  hand,  furnished  nearly  one-fifth  of  the  total  number  of  cattle 
other  than  milch  cows,  which  were  largely  raised  and  fattened  by 
different  owners. 

With  the  passing  of  the  public  grazing  domain  and  the  gradual 
opening  up  of  the  range  country  in  the  western  States  to  farmers, 
the  second  system  is  slowly  giving  way  to  the  former;  this  implies, 
as  we  shall  see,  important  changes  also  in  the  methods  of  feeding 
adopted.  Farmers  who  raise  and  fatten  their  own  cattle  live  in 
agriculturally  well-developed  States  where  land  is  high  priced  and 


MILLIONS      10         20        30        40         50        60        70        80        90        100 


1890 


1900 


FIG.  59. — From  1890  to  1910  the  number  of  cattle  in  this  country  increased  from 
53,000,000  to  69,000,000,  an  increase  of  30  per  cent.,  and 'the  population  increased  from 
63,000,000  to  92,000,000,  an  increase  of  about  46  per  cent.  The  ratio  of  cattle  to  popula- 
tion was,  in  1890,  100  : 84,  and  in  1910,  100  : 67. 

feeding  operations  expensive,  and  they  must,  therefore,  get  the 
cattle  ready  for  market  in  shorter  time  than  is  necessary  for  the 
cattle  men  on  the  western  plains  and  ranges.  The  latter  occupy 
large  areas  of  cheap  lands  and  can  keep  cattle  at  a  relatively  low 
cost,  so  that  it  is  not  so  important  whether  they  are  marketed  at 
three  or  four  years  of  age.  The  farmer  in  the  eastern  and  central 
States  can  produce  beef  profitably  only  by  keeping  stock  of  the 
improved  beef  breeds  or  using  pure-bred  beef  bulls  and  giving  the 
cattle  good  care  and  attention ;  they  must  also  be  fed  with  a  view  to 
being  marketed  at  an  early  age,  either  as  baby  beef,  yearlings,  or 
two-year-olds  (Fig.  59). 


256  PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

Growth  and  Fattening. — -Before  considering  the  method  of 
feeding  to  be  followed  in  the  production  of  different  kinds  of  steers, 
it  will  be  necessary  to  discuss  briefly  some  phases  of  the  general 
laws  of  beef  production.  Beef  production,  as  production  of  meat  in 
general,  includes  two  more  or  less  distinct  processes :  Growth  and 
fattening.  The  growth  of  animals  takes  place  from  birth  to  ma- 
turity, and  consists  essentially  in  an  increase  in  the  protein  tissues 
of  the  body  and  the  bone  structure,  etc.  (p.  20).  At  the  same  time 
there  is  an  accumulation  of  body  fat  that  will  vary  according  to 
the  character  and  quantity  of  feed  eaten.  The  production  of  pro- 
tein tissues  can  be  modified  to  a  certain  extent  by  the  feed,  but  it 
appears  to  be  mainly  a  function  of  the  animal  and  is  determined 
by  its  individuality  and  breeding.  Growth  is  most  active  in  the 
young,  and  gradually  diminishes  as  the  animal  grows  older,  until 
it  practically  ceases  in  the  mature  animal. 

Fattening,  on  the  other  hand,  can  take  place  at  any  age;  it 
accompanies  the  production  of  protein  tissues  in  the  growing  ani- 
mal, especially  if  this  is  fed  in  liberal  amounts  with  fattening  feeds, 
but,  as  a  rule,  it  goes  on  most  rapidly  from  the  time  the  animal  has 
made  its  growth,  when  there  is  a  greater  surplus  of  feed  materials 
available  after  the  maintenance  requirements  of  the  body  have  been 
met.  The  fattening  process  is,  therefore,  in  the  main  determined 
by  the  amount  of  feed  which  the  animal  receives  and  can  digest  in 
excess  of  that  required  for  maintenance  and  growth,  or  for  main- 
tenance only,  in  the  case  of  mature  animals. 

The  processes  of  growth  and  fattening  may,  as  suggested,  be 
going  on  at  the  same  time  in  the  animal  body.  A  calf  or  yearling, 
if  gaining  in  weight,  is  always  laying  on  fat,  and  a  two-year-old 
may  mature  to  some  extent  while  being  fattened.  The  fattening 
process  improves  the  quality  and  flavor  of  the  meat  and  makes  it 
tender  and  juicy;  this  comes  through  a  deposition  of  fat  between 
the  muscle  tissue,  and  an  increase  of  the  extractives  of  the  meat.  The 
accumulation  of  fat  about  the  internal  organs  and  below  the  skin  is 
incidental  to  the  improvement  of  the  meat  by  the  fattening  process 
and  represents  a  certain  value,  but  animals  are  fattened  primarily 
to  increase  the  tenderness  and  palatability  of  the  meat,  and  not  for 
the  purpose  of  obtaining  large  amounts  of  internal  fat  and  thick 
layers  of  fat  about  the  body. 

Composition  of  Increase  in  Fattening. — The  results  of  early 
experiments  at  the  Eothamsted  station  by  Lawes  and  Gilbert  show 
that  an  increase  in  body  substance,  even  in  young  animals,  consists, 
to  a  large  extent,  of  pure  fat.  Jordan  gives  the  following  average 


FEEDING  BEEF  CATTLE 


257 


figures  for  the  composition  of  the  increase  in  weight  of  young  and 
mature  fattening  steers,  the  results  shown  in  the  first  two  lines 
being  obtained  in  English  experiments  and  those  in  the  third  line 
in  American  experiments: 

Composition  of  Increase  in  Fattening  Steers,  in  Per  Cent 


Dry 

matter 

Ash 

Protein 

Fat 

Oxen  fattened  very  young 

63  to  68 

225 

10 

50  to  55 

M  ature  animals,  final  period  
Well-fed  steers,  growth  from  17  to  27 
months  of  age  

70  to  75 
57.6 

1.5 
6.0 

7  to  8 
14  1 

60  to  65 
37  5 

Even  in  animals  that  were  fattened  while  very  young,  37.5  to 
50  per  cent  of  the  increase  in  body  weight  consisted  of  fat,  32  to  42 
per  cent  was  water,  and  10  to  14  per  cent  consisted  of  protein. 
With  mature  animals,  on  the  other  hand,  60  to  65  per  cent  of  the 
increase  was  fat,  25  to  30  per  cent  was  water,  and  only  7  to  8  per 
cent  protein.  This  suggests  that  a  large  supply  of  protein  to  fatten- 
ing animals  is  not  all-important,  as  was  formerly  considered  the 
case.  Practical  feeding  experience  has  shown  that  fattening  animals 
require  only  a  small  amount  of  protein  for  making  good  gains  so 
long  as  they  receive  plenty  of  digestible  nutrients  in  their  feed. 

Protein  Requirements. — The  approximate  protein  require- 
ments of  cattle  have  been  formulated  by  Armsby  as  follows,  from 
the  results  of  a  considerable  number  of  experiments ;  given  in  pounds 
of  digestible  protein  per  thousand  pounds  live  weight. 

1  to  3  months  old,  4.8  to  3.5  pounds. 

1  to  1%  years  old,  2.0  pounds. 

2  years  old,  1.75  pounds. 
2%  years  old,  1.5  pounds. 

In  mature  fattening  animals  the  protein  requirements  are  very 
small,  as  the  formation  of  muscular  tissue  in  these  animals  has 
practically  ceased  and  protein  is  mainly  required  for  repair  of  the 
body  tissues. 

Since  the  protein  requirements  for  fattening  animals  are  much 
lower  than  previously  held  necessary,  the  nutritive  ratio  of  th? 
rations  fed  may  be  much  wider  than  that  given  by  Wolff-Lehmann. 
Careful  experiments  have  shown  that  the  nutritive  ratio  of  fatten- 
ing rations  may  range  from  1 :  4  to  1 : 10  without  affecting  the  gain 
in  body  weight  per  unit  of  digestible  matter  eaten,  provided  the 
feed  supplied  above  maintenance  be  furnished  by  easily  digestible 
17 


258  PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

feeding  stuffs  (concentrates  or  roots).  With  a  wider  ratio  than 
1 :  10,  there  will  be  a  depression  in  the  digestibility  of  the  nutrients, 
and  lower  results  will  be  obtained  than  if  the  ration  contained  a 
larger  amount  of  protein  (p.  69).  It  was  formerly  believed  that 
the  protein  in  the  feed  was  the  source  of  fat  in  the  body,  but  it  has 
now  being  established,  mainly  through  the  investigations  of  German 
scientists,  as  well  as  by  the  results  of  practical  tests,  that  the  carbo- 
hydrates of  the  feed  are  the  main  sources  of  the  body  fat;  protein 
has  not,  therefore,  the  importance  in  the  feeding  of  fattening  ani- 
mals as  was  previously  taught,  and  the  Wolff-Lehmann  standards 
for  fattening  cattle  are  now  largely  of  historical  interest  only: 
They  call  for  more  protein  and  narrower  nutritive  ratio  than  neces- 
sary, as  well  as  for  excessive  amounts  of  total  dry  substance  and 
digestible  nutrients,  as  has  been  shown  by  Jordan.2  According  to 
the  latter  authority,  it  seems  evident  that  "under  proper  condi- 
tions 8  to  10  pounds  of  dry  coarse  feed  and  15  to  18  pounds  of 
grain  are  all  that  can  generally  be  fed  with  greatest  profit  to  a  steer 
actually  weighing  1000  pounds,  and  may  be  even  more  than  is 
utilized  by  the  animal  to  the  best  advantage.  Such  a  ration  would 
supply  about  16  pounds  of  digestible  organic  matter/' 

Rate  of  Increase. — The  rate  of  increase  is  more  rapid  in  young 
than  in  older  animals;  it  is  also  most  rapid  in  the  early  stages  of 
the  fattening,  and  gradually  diminishes  toward  the  close  of  the 
period,  when  the  animals  reach  the  condition  known  as  "  finished." 

The  rate  of  gain  calculated  from  statistics  covering  feeding 
experiments  "  with  more  than  50,000  cattle  of  different  ages  "  is 
given  as  follows  by  Wilcox  :3 

Average  Daily  Gain  in  Young  and  Old  Cattle. 

%-year-old 2.3     pounds. 

1%-year-old    2.09  pounds. 

2%-year-old 1.58  pounds. 

3%-year-ol4    1.44  pounds. 

4%-year-old    1.2     pounds. 

The  cost  of  100  pounds  gain  produced  with  calves  was  $4.98; 
yearlings,  $7.23 ;  two-year-olds,  $7.45 ;  three-year-olds,  $13.75. 

The  cheapest  returns  in  gain  in  body  weight  for  the  feed  eaten 
are  obtained  with  young  animals,  because  the  nutritive  processes 
are  especially  active  in  young  life  and  a  larger  proportion  of  the 
increase  is  water  in  these  animals  than  in  mature  ones.  Accord- 
ing to  Professor  Smith,  of  Minnesota  Agricultural  College,  a  two- 

2 "  The  Feeding  of  Animals,"  p.  345. 

8 "  Country  Life  in  America,"  July,  1905. 


FEEDING  BEEF  CATTLE 


259 


year-old  steer  will  require  approximately  one-third  more  feed  for 
a  given  gain  in  weight  than  will  the  yearling,  and  the  three-year-old 
one-third  more  than  the  two-year-old.4  While  fattening  young  ani- 
mals bring  quicker  and  larger  returns  than  older  stock,  under 
otherwise  similar  conditions,  there  are  special  difficulties  connected 
with  the  fattening  of  young  stock.  It  requires  more  skill  and  care 
on  the  part  of  the  feeder  to  obtain  satisfactory  rapid  gains  with 
young  stock.  They  require  heavier  grain  feeding  than  older  ani- 
mals, and  the  chances  for.  accidents  are  greater  than  with  these. 

Results  at  Smithfield  Show. — '-The  relation  between  the  age  of 
fattening  steers,  the  average  daily  gain,  and  the  percentage  dressed 
weight  is  shown  in  the  following  table  for  one-,  two-,  and  three- 
year-olds  of  seven  different  beef  breeds  slaughtered  at  the  Smith- 
field,  England,  Fat  Stock  Show  in  1888-1895 : 5 

Average  Data  for  Steers  Slaughtered  at  the  Smithfield  Fat  Stock  Show,  1888-1895 


Number 
of 
animals 

Daily 
gain, 
pounds 

Average 
live 
weight, 
pounds 

Per  cent 
dressed 
weight 

One-year-olds.  .  .  . 

77 

2.01 

1329 

65.5 

Two-year-olds  .... 
Three-year-olds.  .  . 

108 
64 

1.74 
1.56 

1744 
2055 

67.1 
67.9 

The  average  daily  rate  of  gain  was  higher  with  the  yearlings 
than  with  the  two-year-olds  in  case  of  all  the  breeds,  and  the  daily 
gain  made  by  the  two-year-olds  higher  than  that  of  the  three-year- 
olds.  The  percentage  dressed  weight,  on  the  other  hand,  was 
lowest  for  the  yearlings,  the  two-year-olds  being  next,  and  the 
three-year-olds  highest.  We  note  that  the  yearlings  gained  2.01 
pounds,  on  the  average,  for  each  day  of  the  fattening  period;  the 
two-year-olds,  1.74  pounds,-  and  the  three-year-olds,  1.56,  and  that 
the  percentage  dressed  weights  of  the  three  classes  of  steers  were 
65.5,  67.1,  and  67.9  per  cent,  for  yearlings,  two-,  and  three-year-olds, 
respectively. 

Results  at  American  Fat  Stock  Show. — The  records  of  the 
American  Fat  Stock- Show  (precursor  of  the  "International")  for 
animals  exhibited  in  the  various  classes  have  been  compiled  by 
Stewart  for  the  years  1878-1885.6  Summary  figures  are  given  in 

4  Cyclopedia  American  Agriculture,  vol.  iii,  p.  318;  these  figures  doubt- 
less refer  especially  to  the  corn  belt. 

5  Reported  annually  in  the  Live  Stock  Journal  and  Agricultural  Gazette, 
London ;  from  a  compilation  by  Henry. 

6 "  Feeding  Animals,"  3rd  ed.,  p.  530. 


260 


PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


the  following  table  for  gain  for  steers  of  different  ages,  and  also 
for  the  gain  for  each  successive  group: 

Relation  of  Age  to  Weight  and  Daily  Gain  of  Steers 


Average 

Gain 

Gain  per 
pou 

period, 
nds 

Classes  of  steers 

of  steers 

age,  days 

weight, 
pounds 

per  day, 
pounds 

Total 

Daily 

Calves 

30 

297 

780 

2.63 

780 

2.63 

Yearlings  
Two-year-olds 

152 
145 

612 
943 

1334 
1639 

2.18 
1.74 

554 
305 

1.76 
.92 

Three-year-olds  .... 

133 

1283 

1938 

1.51 

299 

.87 

The  figures  show  a  decided  decrease  in  the  rate  of  daily  gain 
with  increasing  age  of  the  steers,  and  also  a  still  more  marked  de- 
crease in  the  gain  for  each  period,  viz.,  from  2.63  pounds  for  the 
calves  to  0.87  pound  for  the  last  year  of  the  three-year-olds. 

The  results  given  in  the  last  two  tables  were  obtained  with 


NUMBER  OF 
DAYS  FEEDING 

100    200    300  400   500  600   TO  800   900  OX 

56 
84 
112 
140 
168 
182 

— 

"" 

""" 

FIG.  60. — The  amount  of  grain  required  to  produce  a  hundred  pounds  of  gain  in 
fattening  steers  increases  with  the  range  of  the  feeding  period  from  about  730  pounds  to 
1000  pounds.  (Kansas  Station.) 

cattle  of  the  specific  beef  breeds  and  of  choice  individuals  within 
these  breeds.  They  are,  therefore,  higher  than  are  likely  to  obtain 
with  steers  of  poorer  breeding  and  fed  less  intensively  (Fig.  60). 
The  percentage  dressed  weight  of  cattle  in  thin  body  flesh  will 
generally  come  from  54  to  58  per  cent,  and  for  fattening  steers  58 
to  65  per  cent  or  better,  according  to  the  breed  and  degree  of  finish. 
The  percentage  dressed  weight  of  steers  but  rarely  exceeds  70  per 
cent. 


FEEDING  BEEF  CATTLE  261 

Cattle  Markets. — The  largest  central  cattle  markets  in  the 
country  were  located  in  1910  as  follows:  Chicago  (over  3,000,000 
cattle  received  during  the  year),  Kansas  City  (2,250,000),  Omaha 
and  St.  Louis  (both  about  1,250,000),  Fort  Worth,  Texas,  New 
York,  and  St.  Joseph,  Mo.  (decreasing,  in  the  order  given,  from 
1,000,000  to  500,000).  Other  important  cattle  markets  are  St. 
Paul,  Sioux  City,  Denver,  Indianapolis,  Cincinnati,  Buffalo,  etc. 
The  relative  importance  of  these  markets  will  doubtless  change  with 
the  further  development  of  our  cattle  industry,  since  cattle  markets 
follow  in  the  wake  of  the  producing  areas;  western  cattle  markets 
have  developed  rapidly  during  the  last  few  decades,  while  the 
eastern  markets  have  in  general  declined.7 

Shrinkage  of  Cattle. — When  cattle  are  sold  a  certain  deduction 
is  generally  made  for  the  "  shrink  "  in  weight  between  the  place 
where  sold  and  marketed.  This  allows  for  the  loss  in  weight  that 
occurs  during  transportation,  and  varies  according  to  the  distance 
travelled  and  methods  of  transportation,  as  well. as  the  system  of 
feeding  and  handling  of  the  cattle  prior  to  shipping.  The  shrinkage 
is  generally  figured  at  3  to  4  per  cent.  On  a  1000-pound  steer  this 
will  mean  a  deduction  of  30  or  40  pounds  for  which  no  pay  is 
received.  The  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  in  recent 
investigations  of  the  shrinkage  in  weight  of  beef  cattle  in  transit,8 
made  careful  studies  of  the  various  factors  that  influence  the  shrink- 
age. It  was  found  that  the  shrinkage  of  range  cattle  in  transit 
over  70  hours  during  a  normal  year  is  from  5  to  6  per  cent  of  their 
live  weight.  If  they  are  in  transit  36  hours  or  less,  the  shrinkage 
will  range  from  3  to  4  per  cent  of  their  live  weight.  The  shrinkage 
of  fed  cattle  does  not  differ  greatly  from  that  of  range  cattle  for 
equal  periods  of  time.  It  varied  from  about  3  per  cent  with  all  of 
the  silage-fed  cattle  and  4.2  per  cent  with  the  corn-fed  cattle  when 
both  classes  of  these  animals  were  in  transit  for  less  than  36  hours,  to 
5.4  per  cent  for  the  pulp-fed  cattle  which  were  in  transit  from  60 
to  120  hours. 

The  Spread  or  Margin. — The  profit  in  beef  raising  depends 
not  only  on  the  gains  made  by  steers  during  fattening  period,  but 
fully  as  much  on  the  price  at  which  the  steers  are  bought  and  sold. 
The  difference  in  the  latter  two  figures  is  known  as  "  spread  "  or 
"margin";  this  is  given  per  hundredweight  or  pound.  If  feed- 
ing cattle  are  bought  at,  say,  6  cents  a  pound  and  sold  at  the  end 
of  the  fattening  period  at  7  cents,  there  is  a  margin  of  1  cent  per 

7  Illinois  Circular  169.         8  Bulletin  25. 


262 


PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


pound,  or  $1.00  per  hundredweight.  As  the  feed  consumed  by  the 
steers  frequently  costs  more  than  the  value  of  the  gain  secured,  it 
is  important,  in  order  to  "break  even/'  that  there  be  a  certain 
margin  of  profit.  This  may  vary  from  %  to  1%  cents  per  pound. 
Unless  the  feeder  gets  the  benefit  of  the  improvement  in  quality  that 
occurs  through  the  fattening  process,  he  is  not  likely  to  come  out 
even,  and  it  is  evident  that  the  better  he  buys,  the  smaller  margin 
will  be  required  to  make  the  feeding  profitable ;  hence  the  old  say- 
ing among  stockmen,  that  "  Cattle  bought  right  are  more  than 
half  sold." 

The  margin  depends  on  at  least  five  factors:  The  purchase 
price,  the  weight  of  animals  bought,  the  gains  made,  the  cost  of  the 
feed  eaten,  and  the  selling  price.  The  manner  in  which  each  of 
these  factors  influences  the  profit  of  the  feeding  operations  will  be 
readily  seen  on  reflection. 

Cost  of  Feeding  Beef  Cattle. — The  proportionate  cost  of  the 
various  expenses  incurred  in  cattle  feeding  on  twenty-four  Iowa 
farms,  as  determined  by  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  dur- 
ing 1909-1911,  is  shown  in  the  following  table.  The  figures  given 
indicate  in  a  general  way  the  importance  of  the  various  expenses  in 
feeding  cattle,  at  least  in  the  corn  belt.9 

Percentage  of  Various  Expenses  Incurred  in  Cattle  Feeding  on  24  Iowa  Farms 


Purchase 
price* 

Feed 

Interest 
at  6  per 
cent 

Labor 

Shipping 
and 
sellingf 

Total 

1909-1910  

55.8 

36.9 

1.3 

1.6 

4.4 

100 

1910-1911  

59.8 

31.8 

1.8 

1.8 

4.7 

100 

Average  for  both  years 

57.8 

34.3 

1.6 

1.7 

4.6 

100 

*  Delivered  at  farm  (including  freight  and  incidental  charges),      t  Excess  in  shrinkage. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  purchase  price  was  more  than  one-half 
(57.8  per  cent)  of  the  total  cost  of  the  feeding,  and  that  the  feed 
cost  came  next,  with  about  one-third  (34,3  per  cent)  of  the  total 
expenses.  These  two  items  make  up  over  90  per  cent  of  the  expense 
of  cattle  feeding  as  practised  on  these  farms,  and  the  financial  results 
of  the  feeding  operations  will,  therefore,  be  determined  largely  by 
them  and  by  the  selling  price  of  the  steers.  Waters  10  found  that  an 
average  margin  of  $1.02  was  required  to  cover  the  entire  cost  of 

9  Farmers'  Bulletin  588. 
"Missouri  Bulletin  76;  see  also  Purdue  (Ind.)  Circular  12. 


FEEDING  BEEF  CATTLE 


263 


fattening  cattle  in  summer,  in  case'  of  feeders  in  the  Mississippi 
valley,  and  that  a  margin  of  $1.50  per  hundredweight  is  necessary 
for  six  months'  winter  feeding  with  two-year-olds.  Data  obtained 
by  the  Purdue  (Indiana)  station  in  the  same  way  showed  that  an 
average  spread  of  $1.07  was  required  to  break  even  under  Indiana 
conditions,  and  that  it  cost  cattle  men  in  that  State  $4.80  per 
hundredweight  gains  in  summer  and  $7.20  for  gains  in  winter. 

Length  of  Feeding  Period. — This  will  vary  from  sixty  days 
to  a  year,  according  to  a  -number  of  conditions,  as  kind  of  stock, 
cost  of  feed,  and  market  conditions.  The  various  factors  affecting 
the  length  of  the  fattening  period  are  succinctly  stated  as  follows 


FIG.  61.— Tennessee  steers  in  the  feed  lot.     (Tennessee  Station.) 

by  Mumford.11  "  The  principal  factors  affecting  the  length  of  the 
feeding  period  are :  Method  of  feeding,  grade,  condition,  and  age 
of  feeding  cattle  used. 

"'Method  of  Feeding. — Where  it  is  desired  to  feed  a  ration  in 
which  there  is  a  large  proportion  of  roughage  to  grain,  the  fatten- 
ing process  is  slow.  On  the  other  hand,  the  feeding  of  large  pro- 
portions of  grain  to  roughage,  or,  in  other  words,  the  feeding  of 
a  highly-concentrated  ration,  usually  shortens  the  fattening  period. 
Forced  feeding  on  highly-concentrated  rations  required  for  quick 
finish  is,  of  course,  more  hazardous  than  the  longer  feeding  period 
with  the  more  bulky  ration.  A  compromise  between  the  two  some- 
what radical  methods  has  been  practised  with  excellent  results. 
This  compromise  method  is  as  follows:  For  winter  fattening 

11 "  Beef  Production,"  p.  100. 


264 


PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


1000-pound  feeders  in  a  six  months'  period,  use  thirty  to  sixty  days 
for  getting  cattle  to  full  grain  ration,  allowing  free  access  to  all 
the  roughage  the  cattle  will  take  at  the  beginning,  and  gradually 
decreasing  the  amount  of  roughage  as  the  grain  is  increased.  With 
two-  and  three-year-old  cattle  that  are  finished  on  grass,  120  days 
of  full  feeding  are  usually  sufficient  to  put  such  cattle  in  satisfactory 
marketable  condition  after  they  have  been  carried  sixty  to  ninety 
days  on  light  grain  rations. 

"  Grade  and  Condition  of  Feeding  Cattle  Used. — The  quality  or 
breeding  of  the  cattle  has  a  direct  bearing  upon  the  proper  length 
of  the  fattening  period.  Common  cattle  of  the  lower  grades  and 
plainer  sorts  are  not  susceptible  to  the  same  high  finish  that  can  be 
given  well-bred  cattle,  hence  it  is  useless  to  feed  them  for  it.  Low- 
grade  feeders  finish  quicker  than  those  of  high  grade  at  the  same 
weights  and  in  the  same  condition,  because  they  are  older  (Fig.  61). 

"Age  of  Feeding  Cattle  Used. — In  ordinary  practice  it  takes 
three  to  four  months  to  finish  mature  feeders,  five  to  seven  months 
for  two-year-olds,  eight  to  ten  months  for  yearlings,  and  ten  to 
eighteen  months  for  calves." 

Returns  for  Feed  Eaten. — Information  secured  from  cattle 
men  in  the  corn  belt  by  the  Illinois  station  shows  that  the  amounts 
of  grain  (corn  or  its  equivalent)  and  hay  required  to  produce  100 
pounds  gain  in  case  of  steers  of  different  ages  in  winter  and  summer 
are,  on  the  average,  as  follows:12 

Feed  Required  for  100  Pounds  Gain  with  Steers  of  Different  Ages 


Pounds 
gain 
produced 
from  one 
bushel 
corn 

Per  100  pounds  gain 

Hay, 
pounds 

Grain 
feed, 
pounds 

Calves  winter 

8.9 
10.0 
6.5 
7.6 
5.4 
6.8 

378 
267 
517 
219 
473 
129 

630 

577 
857 
734 
1036 
818 

Calves,  summer  
Yearlings,  winter       .    . 

Yearlings,  summer 

Two-year-olds,  winter.  .  . 
Two-year-olds,  summer.  . 

According  to  a  common  rule  of  feeders,  it  takes  1000  pounds 
grain  and  500  pounds  rough  feed  per  100  pounds  gain  in  the  feed 
lot;  the  averages  of  the  returns  on  which  the  preceding  data  are 
based  are  924  pounds  grain  and  428  pounds  of  roughage,  showing 
that  this  rule  gives  a  somewhat  liberal  allowance  of  feed  13  (Fig.  60). 


12  Illinois  Circular  88. 


13  Loc.  cit. 


FEEDING  BEEF  CATTLE  265 

Pasture  for  Steer  Feeding. — The  profit  made  in  feeding  steers 
will  depend  largely  on  the  kind  and  quality  of  the  available  pasture. 
Steers  make  their  cheapest  gains  during  the  summer  on  grass,  but 
grass-fed  cattle  do  not  bring  the  prices  that  those  fed  corn  or  other 
concentrates  command,  and  if  they  are  to  be  sold  on  the  large 
markets  they  should  receive  grain  in  addition,  especially  later  in  the 
season,  when  the  pastures  no  longer  furnish  abundant  feed.  It  is 
important  not  to  overstock  the  pastures  so  that  they  will  be  eaten 
too  closely  to  furnish  ample  feed  for  the  steers.  On  an  average, 
one  and  one-half  to  two  acres  should  be  allowed  for  each  20  head 
of  cattle,  to  secure  a  sufficient  supply  of  feed  throughout  .the  sea- 
son. When  grain  is  fed  to  cattle  on  pasture,  the  area  of  land  re- 
quired for  each  lot  of  steers  may  be  reduced  to  one  or  one  and  one- 
half  acres.  The  gains  made  on  pasture  are  also  dependent  on  the 
method  of  winter  feeding  practised.  If  the  cattle  have  been  win- 
tered largely  on  rough  feeds  and  have  been  accustomed  to  depend  on 
roughage  for  nourishment,  they  will  be  better  able  to  make  satis- 
factory gains  on  pasture  alone,  but  whether  they  should  be  marketed 
as  grass-fed  must  depend  largely  on  the  condition  of  the  market. 
The  gains  made  by  cattle  on  pasture  will  range  from  one  and  one- 
half  to  two  pounds  a  day.  Waters  reports14  that  successful  cattle 
men  in  Missouri,  Illinois,  and  Iowa  obtained  the  following  gains 
for  the  season  of  six  months :  From  yearlings,  270  to  288  pounds ; 
for  two-year-olds,  312  to  318  pounds.  If  a  charge  of  75  cents  a 
month  be  made  for  yearlings  on  pasture,  their  gains  cost  approxi- 
mately $1.60  per  hundredweight,  and  the  charges  for  two-year- 
olds  $1  a  month  for  the  season,  the  gains  they  put  on  cost  about 
$1.90  per  hundredweight.  Gains  made  on  winter  feeding,  on  the 
other  hand,  will  cost  at  least  $6  per  hundredweight,  and  may  be 
double  this  amount ;  the  relative  cheapness  of  pasture  feeding  when 
good  gains  are  made  is  apparent  from  these  figures. 

Silage  for  Steers. — The  number  of  cattle  men  who  are  feeding 
silage  to  their  stock  has  increased  greatly  during  late  years,  and 
in  many  sections  silos  are  now  as  common  on  stock  farms  as  they 
have  long  been  on  the  dairy  farms.  The  rapid  growth  of  silage 
feeding  on  stock  farms  is  conclusive  evidence  that  silage  is  a  good 
feed  for  steers,  it  is  the  consensus  of  opinion  among  feeders  that 
it  decreases  the  cost  of  beef  production  considerably,  especially 
where  no  legume  hay  or  protein  feeds  are  fed.  Trials  have  also 
shown  that  the  addition  of  corn  silage  to  an  ordinary  fattening 

14  Missouri  Circular  24. 


266  PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

ration  will  result  in  an  improvement  in  the  rate  of  gain  and  the 
dressing  percentage,  will  decrease  the  cost  of  the  gain,  and  give 
better  finished  steers. 

The  value  of  silage  for  fattening  steers  has  been  demonstrated 
by  the  results  of  experiments  at  a  number  of  our  stations.15  In 
experiments  at  the  Indiana  station  four  lots  of  steers  were  fed  for 
160  days  on  rations  composed  of  shelled  corn,  cotton-seed  meal, 
and  clover  hay,  three  of  the  lots  receiving  corn  silage  in  addition, 
viz.,  on  the  average  16.0,  27.4,  and  24.8  pounds  per  head  daily. 
The  lot  receiving  shelled  corn,  cotton-seed  meal,  and  silage  yielded 
an  average  profit  of  $20.96  per  steer;  the  two  lots  receiving  shelled 
corn,  cotton-seed  meal,  clover  hay,  and  silage  yielded  $10.51  and 
$13.59,  and  the  fourth  lot,  receiving  shelled  corn,  cotton-seed  meal, 
and  clover  hay,  yielded  a  profit  of  $3.37  per  head. 

If  the  value  of  the  pork  produced  from  the  droppings  and  the 
extra  corn  fed  the  hogs  be  included,  the  profit  from  the  three  lots 
fed  silage  came  as  follows:  $26.21,  $17.09,  and  $19.43  per  head, 
in  the  order  given,  and  that  without  silage,  $8.24  per  head.  Trials 
at  other  stations  have  shown  that  a  ration  of  corn,  cotton-seed  meal, 
and  corn  silage  will  give  equally  good  results  in  every  respect  for 
fattening  steers  as  corn,  cotton-seed  meal,  and  clover  or  alfalfa 
hay.  The  testimony  of  experiments  with  silage  vs.  roots  for  fatten- 
ing steers  conducted  in  Canada16  and  in  England17  is  also  decidedly 
in  favor  of  silage. 

Silage  is  especially  valuable  on  stock  farms  in  times  of  short 
pastures.  A  silo  for  making  summer  silage  is  as  good  an  invest- 
ment for  beef  production  as  it  is  on  dairy  farms  (p.  97). 

Concentrates. — The  use  of  concentrates  in  feeding  fattening 
steers  will  appear  from  the  discussions  of  different  systems  of  feed- 
ing beef  cattle  given  below.  It  will  be  noted  that  there  are  wide 
variations  in  the  amounts  and  kinds  of  different  grain  feeds  fed 
under  different  conditions.  Beef  cattle  are  finished  for  the  market 
on  roughage  alone  (blue-grass  pasture,  alfalfa,  or  alfalfa  and  beet 
pulp)  in  eastern  and  western  States,  respectively,  and  in  the  corn 
belt  as  much  -as  24  pounds  of  grain  is  often  fed  per  day  to  fatten- 
ing steers  on  full  feed.  The  concentrates  fed  to  fattening  steers 

"Missouri  Bulletin  112;  Pennsylvania  Bulletin  118;  Indiana  Bulletins 
136,  163;  Virginia  Bulletins  157,  173;  Illinois  Bulletin  73;  Ohio  Bulletin 
193. 

16  Ontario  Agricultural  College  Reports,  1891,  1901,  1902. 

17  Summaries  of  201  trials  quoted  by  Henry,  "  Feeds  and  Feeding,"  10th 
ed.,  p.  358. 


FEEDING  BEEF  CATTLE 


267 


are,  in  general,  similar  to  those  fed  dairy  cows,  but  the  feeding 
of  Indian  corn  predominates,  being  of  far  greater  importance  for 
this  purpose  than  all  other  grain  feeds  combined.  It  is  the  great 
fattening  feed  of  America,  and,  on  account  of  its  high  starch  and 
oil  contents  and  high  digestibility,  may  be  considered  the  most 
important  factor  in  both  beef  and  pork  production  in  this  country. 
Corn  is  fed  to  fattening  steers  in  the  majority  of  cases  as  snapped 


FIQ.  02. — Steer  feeding  barns  and  feeding  troughs  on  a  California  cattle  ranch.     (See  also 
Fig.  31.)     (Pacific  Rural  Press.) 

(unhusked)  or  husked  ear  corn  or  whole  shelled  corn.  It  is  crushed, 
ground,  or  soaked  only  in  exceptional  cases,  viz.,  when  very  dry 
and  hard  on  account  of  having  been  stored  long  in  the  crib.  Being 
only  medium  or  low  in  protein,  it  is  supplemented  to  advantage  in 
feeding  steers  with  legume  hay,  or  some  high-protein  feed,  like 
linseed  meal  or  cotton-seed  meal,  which  is  fed  two  to  three  pounds 
a  day  during  the  last  sixty  days  of  the  fattening  period  (Figs. 
62  and  63). 


268 


PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


Use  of  Self-feeder. — A  self-feeder  is  a  labor-saving  device  for 
feeding  grain  feeds  to  stock  (Fig.  64).  It  consists  of  a  feed  box 
that  holds  a  considerable  quantity  of  grain  or  other  concentrates; 
the  feed  passes  down  into  the  feed  trough  below  as  this  is  emptied 
by  the  cattle,  and  the  supply  has  only  to  be  replenished  at  inter- 


II,: 


Fia.  63. — Beef  cattle  fattened  on  corn,  fed  in  large,  flat  troughs.     ("Productive  Farming," 

Davis.) 

vals.  It  may  also  be  used  for  feeding  steers  a  mixture  of  grain 
feeds,  or  cut  hay  mixed  with  grain.  The  self-feeder  is  used  by 
cattle  men  in  different  localities  with  varying  success;  no  automatic 
system  of  feeding  cattle  or  other  animals  can,  however,  give  the  best 
results  for  any  length  of  time,  for  "  the  eye  of  the  master  fattens 


FIG.  64. — The  self-feeder  is  used  by  many  farmers  in  the  corn,  belt  States  for  feeding 
corn  or  grain  mixtures  to  fattening  steers.  Hogs  are  generally  kept  with  the  steers.  (Breed- 
ers' Gazette.) 

his  cattle,"  and  the  self-feeder  can  only  be  looked  upon  as  an  aid  in 
economizing  skilled  labor  in  feeding  operations.  Cattle  men  have 
reported  both  success  and  failure  with  self-feeders.  It  appears 
that,  on  the  whole,  they  may  serve  a  useful  purpose  if  properly 
constructed18  and  the  cattle  are  put  on  a  maximum  grain  feed 

18  See  Mumford,  "  Beef  Production,"  p.  149. 


FEEDING  BEEF  CATTLE  269 

slowly  prior  to  being  turned  on  to  the  self-feeder.  An  experienced 
Illinois  cattle  man  gives  as  his  opinion  of  the  self-feeder  that  "it 
is  more  reliable  than  a  careless  man  and  more  economical  of  labor 
than  even  a  careful  man."  Under  favorable  conditions,  self-fed 
steers  are  likely  to  eat  more  grain  and  make  larger  gains  than  those 
fed  by  hand,  but  it  requires  slightly  more  feed  to  produce  a  given 
gain  with  the  self-feeder.19 

The  feeding  of  beef  cattle  will  be  considered  under  the  following 
heads :  Baby  beef,  yearlings,  two-year-olds,  and  older  cattle. 


FIG.  65. — A  Mississippi- raised  "baby  beef"   calf.     Note  the  wonderful  thickness  of  flesh. 

(Ward.) 

Baby  Beef. — The  production  of  baby  beef  (Fig.  65)  is  fol- 
lowed mainly  by  feeders  in  the  corn  belt.  It  has  several  advantages 
over  feeding  of  older  cattle ;  there  is  always  a  good  market  demand 
at  high  prices  for  this  class  of  steers,  weighing  1000  to  1150  pounds 
at  an  age  of  16  to  18  months,  and  the  feeder  receives  quick  returns 
for  his  investment.  Baby  beeves  are  likely  to  dress  somewhat  lower 
than  older  cattle,  but  they  furnish  more  valuable  meat  and  have 
less  inedible  fat  than  the  others,  and  have  no  coarseness  about  the 
neck,  brisket,  and  chuck.  To  offset  these  advantages,  it  requires  a 
higher  grade  of  cattle  and  more  skill  and  care  on  the  part  of  the 
feeder  to  produce  baby  beef,  and  there  is  a  greater  chance  for 

18  Illinois  Bulletin  142. 


270  PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

accidents  through  sickness,  like  indigestion  and  blackleg,  than  in 
feeding  older  cattle. 

In  order  to  make  satisfactory  baby  beef,  calves  must  be  of  good 
beef  type,  low  set  and  blocky,  from  a  pure-bred,  early-matured 
beef  bull  (Fig.  66).  Such  a  bull  will  sire  a  high  percentage  of 
excellent  beef  calves  from  good  grade  cows,  but  it  is  not  likely 
that  calves  from  scrub  or  dairy  cows  can  be  fattened  into  sufficiently 
ripe  carcasses  at  the  age  required.  Calves  fed  for  baby  beef  must 
be  kept  steadily  gaining  until  they  are  ready  for  the  market.  They 
generally  receive  their  dam's  milk  until  weaning  time,  and  are  fed 
grain  as  soon  as  they  learn  to  eat  it;  whole  corn  and  oats  in  the 


FIG.  66. — A  grand  champion  Shorthorn  bull.     (Breeders1  Gazette.) 

proportion  of  3  to  1,  with  some  pea-size  linseed  meal,  will  make  a 
very  satisfactory  grain  mixture  for  calves,  and  with  a  good  grade 
of  hay  or  pasture  will  produce  excellent  gains.  After  weaning, 
they  are  brought  on  to  full  feed  as  soon  as  possible  and  are  fed 
the  mixture  given,  with  some  wheat  bran  or  similar  protein  feed. 
A  little  cornstalks  may  be  also  fed  to  advantage.  Baby  beef  calves 
dropped  in  the  spring  are  rarely  ready  for  market  until  July  of  the 
following  year ;  they  are  generally  marketed  during  the  last  months 
of  the  year,  at  about  18  months  old,  when  they  should  weigh  about 
1100  pounds. 

Calves  raised  on  skim  milk  and  grain  are  also  sometimes  fed 
for  baby  beef,  but  this  requires  special  skill  and  experience  because 
of  the  difficulty  of  keeping  the  calves  steadily  gaining  by  this  sys- 


FEEDING  BEEF  CATTLE  271 

tern,  as  well  as  of  selecting  the  kind  of  calves  that  will  have  the 
capacity  for  feed  and  individual  quality  necessary  to  make  the 
desired  rapid  gains  under  these  conditions.  Inexperienced  feeders 
are  not  likely  to  make  a  success  of  finishing  skim-milk  calves  as 
baby  beeves,  as  it  takes  still  more  expert  knowledge  than  the  pro- 
duction of  baby  beef  from  calves  raised  on  whole  milk. 

Yearlings  are  cattle  18  to  23  months  old.  The  fattening  of 
yearlings  represents  a  less  extreme  system  of  fattening  than  baby 
beef,  but  is  ahead  of  feeding  older  cattle  in  that  quicker  and  larger 
returns  are  obtained  than  in  the  case  of  these ;  it  has  the  advantage 
over  feeding  calves  for  baby  beef  in  that  more  of  a  gain  is  made  on 
grass  or  rough  feeds,  and  it  requires  less  grain  to  reach  the  final 
weight.  This  method  is  especially  adapted  for  farmers  who  have 
an  abundance  of  good  summer  pasture.  Calves  generally  receive 
little  or  no  grain  before  they  are  weaned  from  the  pail  or  the  cow, 
as  the  case  may  be.  They  are  furnished  abundant  pasture  for  the 
fall  months,  and  during  the  winter  all  the  good  hay  they  will  eat, 
with  a  small  allowance  of  grain.  They  depend  on  pasture  only 
during  the  following  summer,  and  are  given  a  full  feed  of  grain 
the  next  fall  and  winter;  they  will  be  likely  to  consume,  on  the 
average,  about  16  to  18  pounds  of  corn  or  its  equivalent  daily  at  this 
time,  in  addition  to  hay  or  fodder  corn  planted  thick ;  a  daily  feed 
of  alfalfa,  clover,  or  other  legume  hay  will  furnish  a  variety  and 
produce  good  results.  The  grain  may  be  corn  alone  or  equal  weights 
of  corn  or  wheat  bran;  if  no  legume  hay  is  available,  a  pound  of 
linseed  meal  should  be  fed  with  corn  and  bran.  One  pig  is  kept 
in  the  feed  lot  for  each  steer  to  consume  the  corn  in  the  droppings. 
By  this  method  of  feeding  the  steers  will  be  in  good  condition 
for  marketing  in  the  spring,  when  they  will  weigh  1100  to  1200 
pounds  at  23  months  old,  and  will  be  likely  to  command  a  good 
price. 

Two-year-olds. — The  system  of  marketing  two-year-olds  (Fig. 
67)  is  most  satisfactory  on  farms  where  hay  and  pasturage  are 
abundant  and  concentrates  are  expensive.  These  cattle  are  fed  a 
light  grain  ration  the  first  winter  and  a  half  grain  ration  the  sec- 
ond winter.  They  are  fed  grain  while  on  pasture,  but,  as  a  full 
feed  of  grain  on  grass  is  only  two-thirds  of  a  full  feed  with  hay, 
this  makes  an  economical  method  of  feeding.  The  steers  are  gener- 
ally fed  soaked  corn  when  on  pasture,  with  some  coarse  crushed 
linseed  cake  if  they  are  on  timothy  or  other  grass  pasture.  Two-year- 
olds  are,  as  a  rule,  marketed  in  July  during  the  early  part  of  the 
second  summer,  before  hot  weather  and  fly  time  set  in ;  if  marketed 


272 


PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


before  July,  they  should  not  be  put  on  grass  at  all  the  second  sea- 
son, as  the  shrink  that  occurs  during  the  first  few  weeks  on  grass 
would  reduce  their  weight. 

Two-year-olds  are  often  also  carried  over  to  fall  by  feeding 
fodder  corn  (corn  with  ears)  after  the  ears  have  hardened  and 
when  the  fodder  is  ready  to  be  shocked.  The  feeding  of  the  corn  is 
continued  for  about  three  months  until  toward  December,  when 
the  steers  will  be  sufficiently  fat  for  the  market.  This  method  of 
feeding  furnishes  an  excellent  and  cheap  combination  of  grain  and 
roughage  well  suited  for  fattening  cattle.  More  liberal  gains  and 
marketing  at  an  earlier  date  may  be  secured  by  feeding,  in  addition 
to  fodder  corn,  bran  and  linseed  meal  in  the  proportion  of  3  to  1, 


FIG.  67. — Fattening  steers  in  California.     (Pacific  Rural  Press.) 

giving  about  four  pounds  of  the  mixture  a  day  per  steer.  Gluten  feed 
or  cotton-seed  meal  may  also  be  fed  to  advantage  in  the  place  of 
linseed  meal,  if  the  market  price  is  in  favor  of  either  of  these  feeds. 
Hogs  Following  Steers. — It  is  a  common  practice  to  keep  hogs 
with  the  steers  in  feeding  fattening  steers,  especially  in  the  corn 
belt.  The  hogs  eat  the  undigested  whole  and  broken  corn  in  the 
droppings  of  the  steers,  and  a  waste  of  feed  is  thus  prevented.  The 
number  of  pigs  per  steer  varies  according  to  the  kind  of  steers 
and  the  feed  they  are  receiving;  more  pigs  may  be  put  with  older 
steers  than  with  yearlings,  and  more  when  corn  is  fed  whole  or 
cracked  than  when  corn  meal  is  fed.  Waters  states20  that  two  or 
three  pigs  per  steer  are  kept  when  these  are  fed  snapped  corn ;  one 

20  Missouri  Bulletin  76. 


FEEDING  BEEF  CATTLE  273 

and  one-half  per  steer  on  husked  corn,  about  one  per  steer  on 
shelled  corn,  and  one  pig  per  two  or  three  steers  on  crushed  or 
ground  corn.  Pigs  following  steers  should  be  of  good  bone,  in  thin 
flesh,  and  of  medium  weight,  viz.,  about  100  pounds;  shoats  put 
with  steers  may  be  lighter,  viz.,  50  to  60  pounds.  When  the  pigs 
are  nearly  matured  or  fattened  they  should  be  replaced  by  a  new 
set  of  pigs,  as  fat  pigs  are  unprofitable  for  following  steers. 

The  gains  made  by  hogs  following  steers  will  vary  according  to 
the  conditions  of  the  feeding.  It  may  be  assumed  that  when  a 
steer  is  fed  about  18  pounds  of  shelled  corn  a  day,  about  three- 
fourths  of  a  pound  of  pork  may  be  obtained;  if  ear  corn  is  fed, 
greater  gains  will  be  made,  while  if  corn  meal  or  cotton-seed  meal  is 
fed,  only  a  very  small  amount  of  pork  will  be  produced,  as  the  steers 
are  able  to  fully  digest  the  grain  when  finely  ground.21 

On  account  of  the  narrow  margin  in  fattening  steers  an.d  the 
expense  of  grain  feeding  it  may  happen,  under  unfavorable  market 
conditions,  that  no  profit  is  made  on  the  steers,  but  the  pigs  follow- 
ing them,  which  have  eaten  a  relatively  small  amount  of  extra 
grain,  can,  as  a  rule,  be  depended  upon  to  bring  a  profit,  and  they 
often  save  the  feeding  operation  from  being  a  losing  proposition. 

Feeding  Range  Cattle. — Time  was  when  cattle  raised  on 
western  plains  and  mountain  ranges  were  kept  until  four  or  five 
years  old  before  they  were  fattened,  but  the  large  majority  of  range 
cattle  now  are  sold  as  two  to  three  years  old,  and  are  fattened  for  a 
period,  varying  in  different  sections  of  the  country,  from  60  to 
180  days.  The  method  of  feeding  depends  on  the  condition  and 
demand  of  the  market  for  which  they  are  intended.  In  the  corn 
belt,  where  a  large  proportion  of  the  range  steers  are  fattened,  the 
common  practice  is  to  feed  snapped  corn  (ears  with  the  husk)  as 
the  only  grain  feed  at  the  beginning  of  the  fattening  period,  giving 
clover  or  alfalfa  hay  as  supplementary  feed ;  after  six  or  eight  weeks, 
ear  corn  with  some  cob  meal  is  gradually  substituted  for  the  snapped 
corn,  and  the  corn  is  increased  slowly  until  the  steers  are  on  full 
feed.  They  will  then  eat  20  to  25  pounds  per  head  daily.  If  no 
legume  hay  is  available,  a  couple  pounds  per  head  daily  of  some 
protein  feed  is  fed  with  the  grain,  as  wheat  bran,  linseed  meal, 
cotton-seed  cake,  or  gluten  feed.  Steers  on  full  feed  eat  but  little 
hay>  viz.,  less"  than  10  pounds  daily. 

Cattle  in  the  western  States  are  generally  fattened  as  three-  or 
four-year-olds  on  alfalfa  alone.  Immense  numbers  of  steers  raised 

21  Farmers'  Bulletin  588. 
18 


274  PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

in  Wyoming,  Nevada,  Texas,  and  other  western  and  southwestern 
States  are  fattened  each  year  in  the  open  valleys  of  the  mountainous 
States  and  in  California,  receiving  no  feed  but  alfalfa  hay,  fed 
either  long  or  cut  (chopped).  The  cattle  do  not  generally  get  fat 
on  this  feed,  but  the  gains  made  are  relatively  cheap.  As  these 
cattle  are  fed  in  racks  in  open  corrals,  the  gains  which  they  make 
are  dependent,  to  a  large  extent,  on  the  winter  weather  and  the 
condition  of  the  corrals,  as  well  as  on  the  quality  of  the  steers  and 
of  the  feed  supply.  In  case  of  muddy  corrals  and  feed  lots  the 
gains  made  by  the  steers  will  be  greatly  reduced;  this  applies  with 
still  more  force  to  hogs  with  the  steers.  Paved  or  cement  feed 
lots,  or  at  least  feed  bunks  with  wooden  platforms,  make  a  profit- 
able investment.  The  necessary  equipment  for  cattle  feeding  will 
vary  with  the  climate,  and  especially  the  rigor  of  the  winter  season. 
Steers  comfortably  kept  and  receiving  good  care  will  yield  greater 
profits  than  those  that  have  to  shift  more  or  less  for  themselves 
and  are  exposed  to  the  inclemency  of  the  weather,  without  shelter 
or  protection  from  rains  or  snow,  cold  winds,  or  intense  sunshine. 

Steers  fed  alfalfa  only  will  eat  25  to  35  pounds  of  alfalfa  hay 
per  head  daily.  Under  favorable  conditions  good  steers  will  gain 
two  to  two  and  one-half  pounds  a  day  on  this  feed;  the  average 
would,  however,  be  likely  to  come  below  two  pounds  per  head  daily, 
rather  than  above  this  figure.  The  steers  go  on  the  market  weigh- 
ing from  1000  to  1200  pounds,  and  have  a  dressing  percentage  of 
56  to  60  per  cent.  There  is  a  preference  shown  on  the  western 
markets  for  small  steers  weighing  less  than  1150  pounds.  In  the 
vicinity  of  the  western  sugar  factories  wet  or  cured  beet  pulp  is  fed 
mixed  with  chopped  alfalfa  hay.  The  common  feeding  period  is 
60  to  90  days,,  depending  on  the  gains  made  and  the  condition  of 
the  market.  Grain  is  rarely  fed  to  either  these  or  alfalfa-fed 
steers,  as  the  market  does  not  call  for  finished  steers,  that  are  as  fat 
as  required  by  the  central  or  eastern  markets.  Steers  fed  chopped 
alfalfa  hay  and  beet  pulp  will  generally  eat  about  100  pounds  pulp 
and  15  pounds  alfalfa  hay  per  head  daily,  and  will  gain  about  two 
pounds  a  day  on  this  feed  (p.  194). 

Beef  Production  in  Eastern  and  Southern  States. — While  the 
West  and  Southwest  supply  the  bulk  of  the  beef  cattle  in  this 
country,  a  large  number  of  cattle  are  being  fattened  every  year  in 
the  eastern  and  southern  States.  The  cattle  industry  is  especially 
of  increasing  importance  in  the  latter  section.  The  South  has 
many  advantages  for  beef  production,  as,  in  fact,  for  animal  hus- 
bandry in  general.  Forage  crops  of  a  great  variety  suited  for 


FEEDING  BEEF  CATTLE  275 

cattle  feeding  can  be  produced  cheaply  and  abundantly  there,  and 
the  favorable  winter  climate  reduces  the  cost  of  investment  in 
buildings  and  equipment  for  cattle  feeding.  Excellent  forage  crops, 
like  alfalfa,  cowpeas,  velvet  beans,  sorghum,  soybeans,  etc.,  together 
with  cotton-seed  meal,  are  the  main  feeds  which  will  enable  southern 
farmers  to  raise  and  fatten  beef  cattle  cheaply  and  which  will  lead  to 
a  gradual  development  of  the  cattle  industry  in  the  South.  The 
danger  of  Texas  fever  is  one  of  the  disadvantages.  Large  areas 
are,  however,  gradually  being  freed  from  the  tick  that  causes  this 
disease,  and  the  time  is  probably  not  far  distant  when  the  whole 
South  will  be  free  of  the  Texas  fever  tick.22 

Rations  for  Steers. — The  following  sample  rations  will  show 
the  kinds  and  amounts  of  feeding  stuffs  that  may  be  fed  to  fatten- 
ing steers  per  1000  pounds  live  weight : 

**  1.  10  pounds  clover  hay,  20  pounds  corn,  3  pounds  cotton-seed  meal. 

2.  5  pounds  clover  hay,  5  pounds  corn  stover,  20  pounds  corn. 
.  3.  10  pounds  alfalfa  hay,  15  pounds  corn,  2  pounds  linseed  meal. 

4.  10  pounds  alfalfa  hay,  18  pounds  corn. 

5.  25  pounds  corn  silage,  10  pounds  mixed  hay,  10  pounds  shelled  corn, 
2  pounds  cotton-seed  meal. 

G.  20  pounds  mixed  hay,  10  pounds  snapped  corn. 

7.  25  pounds  cotton-seed  hulls,  6%  pounds  cotton-seed  meal. 

8.  20  pounds  corn  silage,  10  pounds  clover  hay,  10  pounds  barley. 

9.  15  pounds  kafir  corn,  12  pounds  cotton-seed  hulls,  3  pounds  cotton- 
seed meal. 

10.  8  pounds  alfalfa  hay,  12  pounds  corn  meal,  G  pounds  oats. 

11.  25  pounds  alfalfa  hay,  6  pounds  barley. 

12.  30  pounds  corn  silage,  10  pounds  mixed  hay,  10  pounds  corn. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  the  two  systems  of  feeding  beef  cattle  in  this  country?    State 

the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  each  one. 

2.  What  is  the  average  composition  of  the  increase  in  fattening  steers? 

3.  Why  are  the  Wolff-Lehmann  standards  for  fattening  steers  not  reliable 

guides  ? 

4.  What  is  the  law  in  regard  to  the  relation  of  age  and  weight  of  fattening 

steers  to  the  (a)  daily  gains,  (6)  per  cent  dressed  weight? 

5.  What  does  the  term  spread  or  margin  mean,  as  used  by  cattle  men? 
G.  Give  the  main  factors  on  which  the  spread  depends. 

7.  Give  the  factors  that  determine  the  length  of  feeding  period. 

8.  How  much  grain  and  roughage  does  it  take,  on  the  average,  to  produce 

100  pounds  gain  in  fattening  steers? 

9.  Why  is  pasture  feeding  for  steers  cheaper  than  feeding  during  the  winter 

months  ? 

10.  Discuss  briefly  the  value  of  silage  for  steer  feeding. 

11.  What  is  baby  beef? 

12.  Give  the  conditions  under  which  it  may  be  successfully  produced. 

13.  Describe  briefly  the  methods  followed  in  the  feeding  of    (a)    yearling 

steers,  (6)  two-year-olds,  (c)  range  steers. 

22  Farmers'  Bulletin  588. 


276  PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

14.  Describe  the  method  of  keeping  hogs  with  fattening  steers. 

15.  Where  are  the  main  cattle  markets  located  in  the  United  States? 

16.  What  do  you  understand  by  shrinkage  of  cattle,  how  is  it  influenced,  and 

what  are  the  average  figures  under  different  conditions? 

17.  What  is  a  self-feeder?     Under  what  conditions  is  its  use  advisable  in 

beef  production? 

Literature  on  Feeding  Cattle. — Mumford,  "  Beef  Production,"  Urbana, 
111.,  1908  (see  p.  226)  ;  Barnes,  "  Western  Grazing  Grounds,"  Chicago,  1913; 
Ward,  "  Beef  Production  in  the  South,"  Farmers'  Bulletin  580,  1914;  Cotton 
and  Ward,  "  Economical  Cattle  Feeding  in  the  Corn  Belt,"  Farmers'  Bulletin 
588,  1914;Curtis,  "  Some  Essentials  in  Beef  Production,"  Farmers'  Bulletin 
71,  1898;  Bentley,  "  Cattle  Ranges  in  the  Southwest,"  Farmers'  Bulletin  72, 
1898;  Armsby,  "Feeding  for  Meat  Production,"  Bur.  Animal  Ind.,  b.  108; 
Gray  and  Ward,  "  Beef  Production  in  Alabama,"  Bur.  Animal  Ind.,  b.  131, 
159. 

Experiment  Station  Bulletins,  Circulars  and  Reports. — Ala.,  b.  103 ; 
Ariz.,  b.  50;  Ark.,  r.  '99;  Colo.,  b.  102;  Fla.,  r.  '01,  b.  96  and  102;  111.,  b.  9, 
73,  83,  103,  142,  c.  79,  169;  Ind.,  b.  129,  130,  136;  Iowa,  b.  75,  c.  6;  Kan.,  b. 
47,  67,  130,  132,  198;  Ky.,  b.  108;  Mich.,  b.  247;  Mo.,  b.  76,  c.  24;  Miss.,  b. 
136;  Mont.,  b.  58;  Neb.,  b.  85,  90,  93,  100,  105,  110,  116,  117;  N.  M.,  b.  57; 
N.  D.,  b.  33,  73;  Ohio,  b.  193;  Okla.,  r.  '01;  Penna.,  b.  118,  124;  S.  D.,  b.  97, 
100,  148;  Texas,  b.  76,  86.  97,  110,  159;  Utah,  b.  90;  Va.,  b.  157  and  173; 
Wash.,  b.  79;  Ont.  (Guelph),  r.  '91. 


CHAPTER  XXIY 
FEEDING  HORSES  AND  MULES 

Feeding  Standards  for  Horses. — The  Wolff-Lehmann  and  the 
Kellner-Armsby  standards  are  here  given,  to  be  followed  in  deter- 
mining the  best  rations  for  horses. 

The  Wolff-Lehmann  Standards  for  Horses,  per  1000  Pounds  Live  Weight 


Dry 
matter 

Digestible 

N.  R. 

Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 
and  fat* 

Light  work  .... 
Medium  work. 
Heavy  work.  .  . 

20 
24 
26 

1.5 
2.0 
2.5 

10.4 
12.4 
15.1 

1  7.0 
1   6.2 
1  6.0 

*  Given  separately  by  Wolff-Lehmann. 
The  Kellner-Armsby  Standards  for  Horses 


Digestible 
true 
protein, 
pounds 

Energy 
values, 
therms 

Maintenance  requirements: 
For  1000-pound  horse  
For  1250-pound  horse  
For  1500-pound  horse  
Requirements  for  1000-pound 
horse,  including  mainte- 
nance : 
Light  work 

1.0 

1.2 

1.3 
1.0 

7.00 
8.15 
9.2 

9.8 

JMedium  work              

1.4 

12.4 

Heavy  work         

2.0 

16.0 

Work  Done  by  the  Horse  (Fig.  68).— The  horse  is  kept  for 
the  production  of  work;  this  may  be  pulling  a  load  or  carrying  a 
rider;  in  either  case,  the  energy  in  the  feed  eaten  over  and  above 
that  necessary  for  the  maintenance  of  the  body  is  used  for  perform- 
ing the  work  required,  in  addition  to  moving  his  own  body  for- 
ward. The  work  is  done  by  the  contraction  of  his  muscles,  and 
the  material  stored  up  in  these  from  the  digested  and  assimilated 
feed  is  oxidized  in  this  process.  If  the  oxidation  of  the  materials 

277 


278  PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

in  the  muscles  goes  on  faster  than  the  repair  of  muscles  from  the 
feed  supplied,  the  horse  will  lose  weight.  This  frequently  happens 
when  a  horse  is  working  hard  for  a  considerable  period  of  time  and 
does  not  receive  a  sufficient  quantity  of  easily  digestible  feed  (con- 
centrates). 

Character  of  Feed  Required. — As  the  muscles  are  largely  com- 
posed of  proteins,  it  might  be  supposed  that  the  decomposition  of 
protein  in  the  body  would  increase  with  the  amount  of  labor  per- 
formed; such  is  not  the  case,  however.  The  oxidation  of  non- 
nitrogenous  materials  in  the  body,  on  the  other  hand,  Increases 
rapidly  when  hard  work  is  done.  A  part  of  the  energy  thus  set 
free  appears  as  heat,  and  another  part  as  mechanical  work.  The 
oxygen  required  for  the  oxidation  processes  going  on  in  the  body  is 


FIG.  68. — Draft  horses  that  give  a  good  account  of  themselves  in  the  show  ring,  as  breeding 
animals  and  for  doing  heavy  work.      (Pacific  Rural  Press.) 

supplied  by  the  blood,  and  the  oxidation  products  formed,  carbon- 
dioxide  and  water,  are  exhaled  through  the  lungs  and  in  the  per- 
spiration. The  result  of  heavy  work  is,  therefore,  seen  in  an  in- 
creased consumption  of  oxygen  and  an  increasing  excretion  of 
carbon-dioxide  and  water.  This  is  also  what  takes  place  when 
mature  fattening  animals  are  gaining  weight.  The  carbohydrates 
or  fat,  or  both,  are  the  main  sources  of  energy  supply  both  in  the 
production  of  body  fat  and  muscular  energy,  and  it  is  not  neces- 
sary to  furnish  more  protein  to  working  animals  than  in  the  case 
of  fattening  animals,  viz.,  sufficient  to  insure  a  complete  digestion 
of  the  feed.  For  this  purpose  a  nutritive  ratio  of  1:8  or  1 :  10 
will  suffice. 

A  growing  animal  that  is  performing  work  requires  a  special 
supply  of  protein,  and  the  same  appears  to  be  the  case  with  race 
horses  or  driving  horses  which  perform  heavy  work  within  a  short 


FEEDING  HORSES  AND  MULES  279 

time;  but  for  horses  working  at  ordinary  pace  only  a  relatively 
small  protein  supply  is  required.  The  amounts  of  non-nitrogenous 
components  of  the  ration,  on  the  other  hand,  must  be  increased 
with  the  amount  of  work  done.  The  standards  for  work  horses, 
therefore,  call  for  a  relatively  wide  nutritive  ratio  of  1:6  or  1:7; 
even  this  ratio  is  narrower  than  that  of  rations  ordinarily  fed  in 
this  country,  unless  alfalfa  or  clover  hay  is  fed,  in  which  case  a 
considerably  narrower  ratio  is  fed.  Horses  in  the  eastern  and 
northern  States  are  frequently  given  no  other  feeds  than  timothy 
hay  and  either  oats  or  corn  and  oats.  The  nutritive  ratios  of  these 
feeds  are  as  follows:  Timothy  hay,  1:16;  corn,  1:9.5,  and  oats, 
1 :  5.5.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  rations  composed  of  these  feeds 
will  be  likely  to  have  nutritive  ratios  of  1 :  9  or  wider.  American 
horses  (outside  of  alfalfa  sections)  are  rarely  fed  appreciable 
quantities  of  high-protein  feeds,  showing  that  they  require  but 
relatively  small  amounts  of  protein  in  their  feed,  and  that  they 
receive  wide  nutritive  ratios  even  when  at  hard  work. 

Measurement  of  Work. — The  amount  of  work  done  by  a  horse 
may  be  measured  by  one  of  the  usual  units  of  mechanical  energy,  a 
foot-pound  or  a  foot-ton.  A  foot-pound  is  the  amount  of  energy  ex- 
pended in  raising  one  pound  one  foot  high;  a  foot-ton  is  that 
expended  in  raising  one  ton  one  foot  high.  The  horse-power  is 
another  common  unit  of  energy,  and  is  equivalent  to  550  foot- 
pounds per  second,  or  nearly  2,000,000  foot-pounds  per  hour.  A 
horse's  capacity  for  continuous  work  is,  however,  considerably  smaller 
than  this  amount,  and  may  be  put  at  about  1,000,000  foot-pounds 
per  hour  per  1000  pounds  weight.  Light  work  done  by  horses,  as 
commonly  understood,  will  mean  from  500,000  to  1,000,000  foot- 
pounds per  hour,  medium  work  from  1,000,000  to  1,500,000,  and 
heavy  work  from  1,500,000  to  2,000,000  foot-pounds.1  Instead  of 
measuring  the  amount  of  work  done  by  units  of  mechanical  energy, 
this  may  be  measured  in  the  same  way  as  the  potential  energy  of 
feeds,  by  the  unit  of  heat,  a  Calorie  or  a  therm  (p.  45)  ;  this  is  a 
convenient  method,  because  these  unit  values  are  now  often  used  in 
feed  analyses  and  in  statements  of  feeding  standards.  One  Calorie 
corresponds  very  closely  to  1.54  foot-tons  or  3087  foot-pounds. 

The  relation  of  the  nutrients  required  for  the  production  of  a 
certain  work  by  the  horse  under  varying  conditions  has  been  studied 
in  extensive  investigations  by  German  and  French  scientists,  espe- 
cially among  the  former,  by  Wolff,  Zuntz,  and  Kellner.  These 

1  Murray,  "  Chemistry  of  Cattle  Feeding,"  p.  153. 


280  PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

studies  have  been  of  fundamental  importance,  and  through  them  we 
are  able  to  determine  approximately  the  net  energy  that  must  be 
supplied  in  the  feed  for  the  production  of  different  kinds  of  work 
at  varying  speed,  on  the  level,  or  ascending  certain  grades,  etc. 
Zuntz  found  that  nearly  one-third  {31.3  per  cent)  of  the  total  of 
feed  can  be  converted  by  the  horse  into  useful  work.  This  is  at 
least  three  times  greater  economy  than  that  obtained  in  a  modern 
steam  engine.  The  energy  required  to  masticate  and  digest  feed 
by  horses  was  also  determined  by  Zuntz  in  an  elaborate  series  of 
experiments ;  this  energy  was  found  to  vary  greatly  with  feeding 
stuffs  of  different  character.  In  the  case  of  hay,  oats,  and  corn,  for 
instance,  the  matter  stands  as  follows: 

Hay  Oats  Corn 

Pound  total  digestible  matter  in  one  pound 391  .615  .785 

Labor  expended  in  chewing  and  digestion  (in  terms  of 

nutrients)     209  .219  .082 

In  per  cent 53  35  10 

In  the  case  of  coarse  feeds  a  considerable  proportion  of  the 
potential  energy  is  consumed  in  the  processes  of  mastication  and 
digestion,  and  hence  lost  for  productive  purposes,  while  with  cereals, 
grain  feeds,  and  roots  these  processes  require  a  smaller  proportion 
of  the  energy,  and  more  remains  for  production.  With  some  kinds 
of  straw  a  negative  nutritive  value  was  obtained,  showing  that  while 
a  certain  amount  of  heat  was  liberated  in  the  digestion  of  the  straw 
which  was  ordinarily  of  benefit  to  the  animal,  there  would  be  no 
excess  of  energy  available  for  production ;  in  fact,  a  larger  portion 
of  nutrients  than  found  in  the  straw  would  be  required  to  supply  the 
energy  called  for  by  the  increased  internal  muscular  work. 

Energy  Requirements  of  the  Horse. — Through  the  result  of 
investigations  along  this  line  that  have  been  conducted  especially 
by  German  scientists  we  are  able  to  calculate  the  energy  require- 
ments of  horses  for  a  certain  piece  of  work.  Armsby  gives  the 
following  example:2 

We  will  suppose  that  a  horse  weighing  1100  pounds  is  required  to  haul 
a  load  of  one  ton  20  miles  a  day  on  the  level  road,  at  a  rate  of  2.88  miles 
per  hour,  the  draft  averaging  100  pounds.  The  useful  work  will  be  in  this 
case 

5280  (feet  per  mile)  X  20  X  100  equals  10,566,000  foot-pounds,  or  3,421 
Calories. 

Since  31.3  per  cent  of  the  energy  liberated  in  the  body  is  utilized  in  draft, 
it  will  require,  to  perform  3421  Calories  of  work,  3421  divided  by  .313,  which 
equals  10,929,000  Calories  of  energy  in  the  body.  It  has  been  found  that  it 
calls  for  an  expenditure  of  energy  equivalent  to  264  Calories  for  a  1100-pound 

2  Cyclopedia  American  Agriculture,  vol.  iii,  p.  88. 


FEEDING  HORSES  AND  MULES  281 

horse  to  move  his  own  body  a  distance  of  one  mile  at  the  speed  given,  and  the 
expenditure  of  energy  for  locomotion  will,  therefore,  be  264  X  20  equals  5280 
Calories.  To  these  amounts  must  be  added  the  maintenance  requirements  of 
the  animal,  viz.,  4356  Calories.  The  available  energy  required  per  day  will 
then  be 

Calories 

For  useful  -work 10,929 

For  locomotion    5,280 

For  maintenance    4,356 

20,565 

If  we  assume  10  pounds  of  hay  and  10  pounds  of  oats  as  the  basis  of  the 
ration  of  the  horse,  the  remainder  of  the  food  to  be  supplied  in  the  form  of 
corn,  we  have: 

Calories 

Net  available  energy  required 20,565 

In  10  pounds  of  hay 3,270 

10  pounds  of  oats    8,820 

12,090 


Lacking    8,475 

Corn  required  to  complete  the  ration :   8,475  -=-  1263  =  6.7  pounds. 

By  a  similar  method  of  calculation  and  the  use  of  Kellner  production 
values  (p.  50 ),  we  arrive  at  8.3  pounds  of  oats  as  the  amount  required  to 
complete  the  ration. 

The  available  energy  in  feeding  stuffs  for  horses  has  not  been 
determined  directly,  but  is  from  computed  data,  "  some  of  which 
appear  of  questionable  validity"  (Armsby),  and  we  must,  there- 
fore, look  upon  calculations  like  the  foregoing  as  showing  only 
approximately  the  true  energy  requirements  of  horses  for  work. 
As  a  general  guide  to  the  feed  requirements  at  work,  Kellner 
recommends  the  amounts  per  thousand  pounds  live  weight  given  at 
the  beginning  of  the  chapter  under  Kellner-Armsby  standards. 

Having  now  sketched  in  merest  outline  the  application  of  some 
of  the  scientific  principles  that  have  been  worked  out  of  late  years 
with  regard  to  the  relation  of  feed  requirements  of  horses  for  work 
of  different  kinds,  we  shall  consider  briefly  the  practical  feeding  of 
horses  and  some  important  questions  that  have  bearing  on  this 
subject. 

Feeding  the  Mare  and  the  Foal. — The  new-born  foal  is  always 
given  the  colostrum  of  the  dam.  This  has  purgative  properties  and 
serves  to  cleanse  the  alimentary  tract  of  fecal  matters.  As  a  general 
rule,  the  foal  depends  wholly  on  the  milk  of  his  dam  for  his  nourish- 
ment for  the  first  couple  of  months,  and  largely  so  until  toward 
weaning  time.  It  is  important  to  feed  the  mare  while  suckling 
her  colt  with  a  view  to  having  a  good  supply  of  milk.  If  possible, 


282  PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

she  should  receive  some  succulent  feed;  good  pasture  is  the  ideal 
feed,  but  some  roots  or  good,  bright  silage  are  valuable  substitutes, 
and  with  oats,  rolled  barley,  or  wheat  bran  will  favor  the  milk  secre- 
tion. If  this  should  be  too  rich  or  abundant  and  cause  the  foal  to 
scour,  he  is  allowed  only  a  portion  of  the  milk,  and  the  last  part 
is  milked  out,  as  this  is  always  high  in  fat  content,  which  is  generally 
the  cause  of  the  trouble. 

In  case  the  foal  cannot  have  the  dam's  milk,  he  may  be  raised 
successfully  on  fresh,  warm  milk  from  a  healthy  cow,  preferably  one 
giving  milk  of  a  low  fat  content.  This  is  diluted  with  an  equal 
part  of  warm  water  so  as  to  bring  the  fat  content  down  to  the  low  • 
per  cent  found  in  mare's  milk  (p.  206)  ;  sugar  and  a  little  lime 
water  are  often  added,  but  are  not  necessary.  Raising  a  colt  by  the 
bottle  requires  a  great  deal  of  care,  patience,  and  watchfulness,  and, 
fortunately,  is  only  necessary  in  exceptional  cases.  The  suckling 
foal  may  be  fed  some  sweet  skim  milk  in  five  or  six  weeks  and  the 
amount  gradually  increased  daily  until  in  about  three  months  it 
may  be  given  freely  three  times  a  day  in  the  place  of  new  milk.  At 
this  age  the  foal  will  eat  some  grass,  hay,  or  whole  oats,  which 
gradually  become  the  more  important  part  of  his  diet.  Skim  milk 
is  continued  so  long  as  convenient  during  the  first  year.  This, 
with  grain  and  other  feed  that  he  receives,  will  develop  his  bone 
and  muscles,  which  is  a  matter  of  first  importance  with  the  horse. 
He  is  kept  on  pasture  (preferably  blue-grass)  and  given  oats  mixed 
with  wheat  bran  and  a  little  cracked  corn.  According  to  Henry, 
the  following  amounts  may  be  considered  a  fair  allowance  of  grain 
for  foals :  Up  to  one  year,  two  to  three  pounds  per  day ;  one  to  two 
years,  four  to  five  pounds;  two  to  three  years,  seven  to  eight  pounds.3 

System  of  Feeding  Horses. — There  are  great  differences  in 
the  methods  of  feeding  horses  adopted  by  horsemen  and  farmers 
as  to  details  in  the  manner  of  feeding,  and  no  one  method  can 
give  best  results  under  all  conditions  and  with  different  kinds 'of 
horses.  The  special  method  adopted  must  fit  in  with  the  working 
hours  and  the  work  the  horse  is  required  to  do.  It  is  generally 
considered  necessary  to  feed  the  horse  three  times  a  day,  although 
the  noon  meal  is  sometimes  omitted  without  apparently  impairing 
the  working  capacity  of  the  horse.  The  heaviest  meal,  so  far  as 
hay  is  concerned,  is  given  at  night,  the  morning  meal  being  next  in 
amount,  and  the  noon  meal  smallest,  as  he  has  then  less  time  to 
eat;  at  least  one-half  hour  is  allowed  after  the  morning  and  noon 

8 "Feeds  and  Feeding,"  10th  ed.,  p.  291;  see  also  Alexander,  "Care  of 
New  Born  Foals/'  Wisconsin  Circular  13. 


FEEDING  HORSES  AND  MULES  283 

meals.  The  daily  grain  feed  is  given  about  one-third  each  meal. 
Whatever  system  is  followed,  it  is  important  to  adopt  a  regular 
routine  of  feeding  so  that  the  horse  may  get  his  feed  when  he  ex- 
pects it  and  in  the  manner  to  which  he  is  accustomed. 

Colin  has  shown  that  the  stomach  of  the  horse  will  fill  and  empty 
itself  two  or  three  times  during  a  meal;  the  portion  of  the  feed 
first  eaten  will  remain  only  a  short  time  in  the  stomach,  subject  to 
the  action  of  the  gastric  juice,  being  pushed  into  the  intestines  by 
the  feed  that  follows.  It  has  also  been  shown  that  if  a  horse  is  fed 
grain  and  then  watered,  much  of  the  grain  will  be  carried  along 
into  the  intestines  and  will,  therefore,  not  be  fully  digested ;  hence 
it  would  seem  that  the  logical  order  of  feeding  is,  hay  and  then 
grain;  but  horses  are  most  anxious  to  get  their  grain  and  will  be 
nervous  and  excited  if  it  is  withheld  until  the  end  of  the  meal. 
Farmers  generally,  therefore,  feed  their  horses  grain  first  and  put 
hay  before  them  to  be  eaten  after  the  grain. 

Watering. — Experiments  by  Sanborn4  indicate  that  the  best 
plan  of  watering  horses  is  to  water  both  before  and  after  feeding. 
Tangl,  however,  who  conducted  elaborate  experiments  on  this 
point,5  concluded  that  it  is  of  no  great  moment  whether  horses  are 
watered  before,  during,  or  after  meals,  as  it  has  no  influence  on  the 
digestion  or  the  absorption  of  the  feed  which  they  eat.  It  is  im- 
portant, however,  to  adopt  a  reasonable,  convenient  system  of  water- 
ing as  of  feeding,  and  then  adhere  rigidly  to  it,  for  regularity  in  the 
handling  of  horses  has  an  important  influence  on  their  general 
health  and  condition.  A  moderate  drink  of  water  may  be  given 
horses  at  any  time,  even  when  hot  and  tired.  They  appreciate  a  good 
drink  after  meals,  and  especially  after  the  evening  meal  is  eaten, 
before  lying  down,  but  often  do  not  get  it.  A  horse  will  drink  from 
50  to  75  pounds  of  water  a  day,  on  warm  days  even  100  pounds  or 
more.  Eations  of  narrow  nutritive  ratios,  like  alfalfa  rations,  re- 
quire larger  amounts  of  water  than  those  low  in  protein;  this  is, 
however,  a  matter  of  physiological  interest  mainly,  and  of  but  little 
practical  importance. 

Allowance  of  Roughage. — Owing  to  the  relatively  small  ca- 
pacity of  the  digestive  apparatus  of  the  horse  (p.  30),  his  feed 
must  be  given  to  a  large  extent  in  concentrated  form.  Idle  horses 
may  be  fed  more  roughage  than  those  at  work,  and  the  latter  should 
have  their  main  allowance  of  coarse  feed  at  night,  when  they  have 
time  to  thoroughly  masticate  it  and  can  rest  after  the  meal.  It  is 

4  Utah  Bulletin  9. 

6Landw.  Vers.  Stat.,  1902,  p.  329. 


284  PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

a  common  practice  to  give  horses  all  the  hay  they  can  eat,  but  the 
results  of  careful  investigations  tend  to  throw  doubt  on  the  wisdom 
of  this  practice.  In  experiments  at  the  Montana  station6  in  which 
timothy  and  clover  hay  were  fed  to  work  horses  in  different  amounts, 
it  was  found  that  the  horses  receiving  two-thirds  as  much  hay  as 
they  would  have  eaten  if  given  all  they  wanted  had  more  life  and 
perspired  less  than  those  that  were  not  limited  in  their  hay.  When 
not  more  than  10  pounds  of  clover  hay  per  1000  pounds  live  weight 
was  fed,  it  proved  as  satisfactory  as  timothy  hay.  It  was  also  found 
that  early-cut  timothy  hay  was  relished  more  and  eaten  in  larger 
quantities  than  late-cut  timothy,,  and  that  horses  doing  light  work 
can  be  carried  through  the  winter  on  7^2  pounds  hay  and  5  pounds 
of  grain  daily  per  1000  pounds. 

Horses  should  not  be  fed  more  hay  than  they  will  eat  up  clean 
at  each  feed ;  this  is  usually  less  than  20  pounds  and,  on  an  average, 
about  15  pounds  per  day  per  1000  pounds  live  weight.  The  eating 
of  too  large  quantities  of  coarse  feed  taxes  the  digestive  apparatus 
of  the  horse  unduly  and  is  responsible  for  the  disturbance  of  the 
respiration  of  the  animals  known  as  heaves,  especially  when  over- 
ripe and  dusty  hay  is  fed.  The  Utah  station  reports7  that  there 
was  not  a  single  case  of  digestive  trouble  among  its  horses  when 
the  amount  of  alfalfa  hay  was  limited,  and  states  that  "  many  valu- 
able horses  and  thousands  of  dollars  could  be  saved  annually  if  the 
amount  of  coarse  fodder  fed  to  horses  could  be  reduced  one-half."8 

Work  horses,  which  are  the  animals  primarily  considered  in  this 
discussion,  should,  in  general,  receive  about  two  pounds  dry  feed 
for  each  100  pounds  of  live  weight;  of  this  amount,  one-half  should 
be  concentrates  and  one-half  hay  or  its  equivalent  of  succulent  feeds 
when  a  medium  amount  of  work  is  done ;  as  the  work  increases,  the 
concentrates  are  increased  and  the  amount  of  hay  decreased. 

Hay  for  Horses. — Among  the  rough  feeds,  timothy  hay  is  con- 
sidered especially  valuable  as  a  feed  for  horses,  but  other  kinds  of 
dry  forage,  like  clover,  alfalfa,  prairie  hay,  cowpea  hay,  grain  hay 
(wheat,  barley,  or  oats),  corn  fodder,  millet,  and  others,  are  all 
valuable  horse  feed  when  well  cured  and  free  from  dust,  and  are 
used  in  different  parts  of  the  country. 

Alfalfa  Hay. — There  is  a  prejudice  against  legume  hay,  and 
perhaps  especially  against  alfalfa,  among  many  horsemen,  as  it  is 
believed  to  make  the  horse  soft  and  unfit  for  heavy  work.  A  number 


6  Bulletin  95. 

7  Bulletin  77. 

8  See  also  Illinois  Bulletin  150. 


FEEDING  HORSES  AND  MULES  285 

of  stations  have  carefully  investigated  this  subject,  the  most  ex- 
tensive inquiry  having  been  conducted  at  the  Utah  station.9  No 
ill  results  were  noted  in  these  experiments  on  the  health  of  the 
horses  by  long-continued,  exclusive  feeding  of  alfalfa.  Attacks  of 
colic  and  other  digestive  disorders  can  be  prevented  by  a  judicious 
system  of  feeding,  giving  less  than  the  horses  will  clean  up  (see 
above).  During  these  experiments,  which  were  conducted  for  a 
period  of  twelve  years,  alfalfa  formed  the  sole  roughage  of  all  the 
working  and  driving  horses  at  the  station,  except  during  brief 
periods  when  they  received  other  experimental  fodders,  and  not  a 
horse  was  lost,  either  directly  or  indirectly,  as  a  result  of  feeding 
alfalfa  during  this  entire  period.  This  is  not  surprising  when  we 
remember  that  alfalfa  forms  the  only  roughage,  and  often  the  only 
feed,  throughout  the  year  on  thousands  upon  thousands  of  farms 
in  the  western  States,  especially  in  irrigated  regions,  as  it  is  also 
the  sole  feed  of  dairy  cows  among  many  farmers  in  these  regions. 

The  Utah  station  found  that  20  pounds  of  alfalfa  hay  were 
sufficient  to  maintain  the  weights  of  horses  weighing  nearly  1400 
pounds  when  at  rest;  when  at  heavy  work,  32.6  pounds  were  barely 
sufficient  to  maintain  the  weights  of  the  same  horses.  Eesults  of 
trials  at  the  Wyoming  station10  showed  that  four  farm  horses  re- 
quired to  perform  light  work  maintained  their  weights  on  a  daily 
ration  of  13%  pounds  of  alfalfa  hay  when  they  had  access  to  a 
stack  of  oat  straw.  In  a  second  test  made  with  two  horses  it  was 
found  that  the  weights  were  maintained  on  an  average  daily  ration 
of  13.75  pounds  alfalfa  hay  and  2.25  pounds  oat  straw  per  1000 
pounds  live  weight.  A 'trial  at  the  Wyoming  station  with  six 
horses11  fed  during  ten  one-month  periods  on  alfalfa  hay  showed 
a  total  gain  of  203  pounds,  while  during  an  equal  period  on  native 
hay  there  was  a  total  loss  of  84  pounds.  The  Kansas  station  con- 
cluded, from  experiments  conducted  with  work  horses,  that  alfalfa 
hay,  when  properly  fed,  is  a  much  more  valuable  roughage  than 
either  timothy  or  prairie  hay,  and  reduces  the  cost  of  the  daily 
ration  from  25  to  35  per  cent  when  substituted  for  either  hay  and 
fed  with  corn  and  oats. 

It  may,  therefore,  be  considered  established  that  alfalfa  hay  is 
a  good  feed  for  horses  fed  with  other  roughage  or  grain,  and,  if 
desired,  it  may  also  be  fed  as  sole  feed  without  any  ill  results.  The 
main  precautions  to  be  observed  are  as  follows :  The  hay  must  not 

9  Bulletin  77. 

10  Report  12. 

11  Bulletin  98;  see  also  Nebraska  Extension  Bulletin  28. 


286  PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

be  cut  until  quite  mature;  it  must  be  free  from  dust,  mold,  or 
smut,  and  must  be  fed  in  limited  quantities,  a  maximum  amount 
of  work  horses  being  one  and  one-fifth  pounds  per  100  pounds  live 
weight. 

In  trials  at  the  Illinois  station  it  was  found  that  when  alfalfa  is 
fed  as  the  roughage  part  of  a  ration  of  farm  horses  at  hard  work 
less  grain  is  necessary  to  prevent  them  from  losing  weight  than 
when  timothy  hay  is  fed.  In  this  test  there  was  a  saving  of  about 
22  per  cent  grain.  Though  too  short  to  be  conclusive,  these  tests 
indicate  that  medium  horses  at  hard  work  can  be  maintained  quite 
satisfactorily,  for  a  short  time  at  least,  on  corn  fed  in  conjunction 
with  alfalfa  hay  at  a  saving  in  cost. 

Grain  hay  is  much  used  as  a  horse  feed  on  the  Pacific  coast 
and  in  the  South,  and  millet,  sweet  and  non-saccharine  sorghums  to 
some  extent  in  the  western  States.  Millet  cut  at  the  beginning  of 
bloom  and  well  cured  makes  hay  of  an  excellent  quality  that  is 
nearly  equal  to  timothy  hay  in  feeding  value.  The  danger  of  pastur- 
ing horses  on  second-growth  sorghum  on  account  of  the  possibility 
of  prussic  acid  poisoning  has  been  referred  to  in  another  place 
(p.  110).  The  grain  sorghums  are  often  cut  and  fed  to  horses, 
"  heads  and  all,"  without  threshing  the  grain  (p.  174). 

Silage  for  Horses. — Corn  and  alfalfa  silage  may  be  safely  fed 
to  horses  in  moderate  quantities,  provided  certain  precautions  are 
taken :  It  must  be  made  from  at  least  fairly  mature  corn  and  be 
well  preserved;  silage  exposed  long  to  the  air  before  feeding,  or 
frozen  or  moldy  silage,  must  not  be  fed  to  either  horses  or  mules, 
and  the  latter  kind  of  silage  had  better  not  be  fed  to  any  class  of 
farm  stock.  Good  silage  is  one  of  the  cheapest  and  best  kinds  of 
feed  for  horses,  especially  for  brood  mares  and  work  horses  that 
are  doing  light  work.  It  should  only  be  fed  with  dry  roughage  and 
a  little  at  first,  say  five  pounds  per  head  daily,  increasing  the  allow- 
ance, as  the  horse  becomes  accustomed  to  it,  to  10  or  20  pounds  as 
a  maximum  feed  per  day.  With  plenty  of  grain  on  the  cornstalks, 
horses  are  kept  in  good  condition  on  a  ration  of  20  pounds  silage 
and  10  pounds  hay  for  each  1000  pounds  live  weight.12 

Roots  may  be  fed  to  advantage  in  small  quantities,  10  pounds 
being  a  maximum  allowance  per  day.  "  An  addition  of  5  or  6 
pounds  of  carrots  to  the  daily  feed  ration  of  ordinary  working  horses 
will  almost  always  be  of  benefit ;  and  3  pounds  a  day  will  not  be  too 
much  for  race  horses,  even  in  a  high  state  of  training.  It  is  safest 

12  Farmers'  Bulletin  578;  see  also  Pennsylvania  Bulletin  117. 


FEEDING  HORSES  AND  MULES  287 

to  give  carrots  sliced  longitudinally,  so  that  they  may  not  stick 
in  the  animal's  gullet  and  thus  choke  him  "  (Hayes).  Roots,  espe- 
cially carrots,  are  greatly  relished  by  horses,  and  are  fed  quite  ex- 
tensively in  Europe.  Sliced  potatoes,  10  to  12  pounds  as  a  maxi- 
mum feed,  may  also  be  given,  preferably  mixed  with  cut  hay  or 
straw. 

Concentrates. — Among  the  concentrates  oats  are,  in  general, 
considered  of  a  higher  value  in  feeding  horses  than  any  other  grain 
feed.  They  are  eminently  adapted  for  this  purpose,  and  are  relished 
better  by  horses  than  other  cereals.  Oats  can  be  fed  safely  to  horses, 
since  the  digestive  tract  of  these  animals  does  not  hold  a  sufficient 
quantity  to  produce  serious  disorders.  Owing  to  the  presence  of 
the  hull,  oats  form  a  light  and  loose  mass  in  the  stomach,  which 
makes  it  easy  for  the  digestive  fluids  to  permeate  the  mass  and 
insures  a  more  complete  digestion.  Oats  should  be  fed  whole  to 
horses,  or,  at  least,  crushed  or  rolled,  except  in  the  case  of  old 
horses  with  poor  teeth.  If  corn  and  oats  are  fed,  as  is  a  common 
practice  in  the  East  and  central  States,  the  feed  should  be  coarsely 
ground,  as  it  may  otherwise  give  rise  to  colic  and  indigestion  when 
swallowed  fast  by  hungry  animals.  While  oats  form  the  common 
cereal  fed  to  horses  in  most  parts  of  the  country,  other  grains  are 
used  in  different  sections  and  countries :  Indian  corn  largely  in  the 
corn  belt  and  the  southern  States,  barley  on  the  Pacific  coast,  in 
European  countries,  and  North  Africa.  Barley  is  the  common  horse 
feed  in  Arabia,  world-famous  for  its  fine  breed  of  horses. 

Corn  is  the  main  substitute  for  oats  as  a  horse  feed ;  a  large 
number  of  stations13  have  studied  the  question  of  the  relative  value 
of  the  two  grains  for  this  purpose.  The  general  result  of  this  work  is 
to  the  effect  that  corn  is  a  safe  and  satisfactory  horse  feed,  and  that 
the  best  method  of  feeding  is  to  give  a  mixture  of  the  two  grains. 
This  gives  better  results  than  corn  alone  and,  in  general,  makes  a 
cheaper  ration  than  oats  as  a  sole  concentrate.  In  discussing  concen- 
trates for  horses,  Gay  says  :14  "  When  its  general  use  in  the  corn  belt 
States  is  considered,  much  of  the  prejudice  of  the  eastern  feeders 
loses  weight.  The  average  Iowa  horse,  for  instance,  is  produced  by 
a  dam  which  was  raised  on  corn,  and  had  no  other  grain  during  the 
period  of  carrying  and  suckling  her  foal.  The  foal  receives  a  little 
cracked  corn  or  even  cob  corn  for  his  first  bite,  with  the  amount 

"Ohio  Bulletin  195;  Kansas  Bulletin  180;  N.  Dakota  Bulletin  45; 
Missouri  Bulletin  114;  also  Exp.  Sta.  Rec.,  vol.  12,  p.  4:  E.  Lavalard, 
''  Notes  on  Horse  Feeding." 

"  "  Productive  Horse  Husbandry,"  p.  235. 


288  PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

gradually  increased  until  he  is  allowed  from  20  to  40  ears  per  day 
at  maturity.  In  spite  of  this  fact,  when  these  very  horses  come 
East,  top  our  markets,  and  pass  under  the  management  of  the 
city  stable  boss,  corn  is  absolutely  prohibited  as  dangerous  to  feed ; 
yet  it  requires  a  long  time  to  induce  and  teach  some  of  these  horses 
to  eat  anything  else." 

Other  Concentrates. — Dried  brewers'  grains  with  shelled  corn 
and  wheat  bran,  in  amounts  of  8,  4,  and  2  pounds,  respectively, 
were  found  to  give  good  results  fed  to  street-car  horses,  in  experi- 
ments at  the  New  Jersey15  and  Massachusetts  stations.18  About 
one  pound  of  linseed  meal  per  head  daily  with  corn  and  oats 
gave  satisfactory  results  with  farm  horses  in  trials  at  the  Iowa 
station,17  maintaining  their  weights  and  spirits  and  willingness  to 
work.  On  account  of  its  laxative  tendencies,  it  should  be  used  in 
only  small  amounts  (less  than  one  pound  per  head  daily,  espe- 
cially in  summer).  Cotton-seed  meal,  beet  and  cane  molasses,  dried 
distillers'  grains,  dried  beet  pulp,  etc.,  are  other  concentrates  used 
regularly  in  rations  for  horses  in  different  parts  of  the  country. 
There  is,  therefore,  a  great  variety  of  feeds  to  choose  from  in  feed- 
ing horses  in  almost  all  sections;  evidently  there  is  no  so-called 
one  ration  for  horses  any  more  than  for  other  classes  of  farm  ani- 
mals. "  Any  feeding  stuff  or  combination  of  feeding  stuffs  that 
furnishes  the  necessary  and  desirable  nutrients  at  least  cost  should 
be  the  important  consideration  in  preparation  of  rations  for  farm 
horses  and  mules."18 

Wintering  Farm  Horses. — Farm  work  is  comparatively  light 
in  winter  time  in  northern  States,  and  the  horses  then  often  stand 
idle  for  a  considerable  period.  If  they  are  fed  expensive  feeds,  like 
timothy  hay  and  oats,  at  this  time,  they  will  soon  "  eat  their  heads 
off,"  and  it  is  impossible  to  keep  them  in  good  working  condition 
at  a  low  feed  cost.  Cornstalks  or  corn  fodder  furnishes  an  excellent 
roughage  for  winter  feeding  of  horses;  cereal  straws  are  also  valu- 
able; a  few  ears  of  corn  are  often  all  the  grain  the  horses  receive 
with  this  roughage. 

The  question  of  cheap  substitutes  for  oats  and  timothy  for 
wintering  farm  horses  was  studied  in  an  experiment  with  twelve 
horses  at  the  Michigan  station;19  six  of  these  were  fed  a  regular 

"Report  1892.          "North  Carolina  Bulletin  189. 
10  Bulletin  99.  19  Bulletin  254. 

17  Bulletin  109. 


FEEDING  HORSES  AND  MULES  289 

ration  of  timothy  hay  and  oats,  while  the  others  received  shredded 
cornstalks,  oat  straw  and  hay  for  roughage,  and  ear  corn,  oats,  and 
a  mixture  of  dried  beet  pulp,  bran,  and  oil  cake  in  the  proportion 
of  4 :  1 :  1 ;  8  pounds  of  carrots  were  also  fed  to  the  horses  receiving 
this  ration,  which  was  composed  of  these  various  feeds  in  order  to 
furnish  a  variety  to  the  animals  and  insure  a  good  appetite  through- 
out the  feeding  trial.  The  cost  of  the  two  rations,  based  on  average 
prices,  was  19.4  cents  per  head  daily  for  the  regular  ration  and 
12.3  cents  for  the  cheaper  ration.  The  hprses  fed  the  latter  gained, 
on  the  average,  14  pounds  during  the  ten  weeks  of  the  trial,  while 
those  fed  the  regular  ration,  doing  about  8  per  cent  more  work,  lost, 
on  an  average,  11  pounds  in  weight.  It  is  recommended  to  use  a 
small  part  of  the  corn  field  to  raise  a  supply  of  corn  fodder  for 
wintering  horses,  "  planting,  the  corn  in  drills  thick  enough  to 


FIG.  69. — Horses  on  the  western  range.      (Pacific  Rural  Press.) 

produce  moderate-sized  stalks,  an  abundance  of  leaves,  and  from 
one-half  to  two-thirds  of  a  crop  of  ear  corn,  the  whole  to  be  in 
bundle  form." 

Horses  that  have  been  idle  or  doing  but  little  work  during  the 
winter  should  be  started  on  a  small  grain  ration  with  light  work 
about  six  weeks  before  spring  work  commences,  so  as  to  be  put  in 
condition  for  this  work;  the  grain  is  increased  gradually  in  order 
to  avoid  digestive  disorders  (Fig.  69). 

Fleshing  Horses  for  Market. — Horses  are  collected  from  all 
over  the  country  in  small  numbers  every  fall,  and  are  fattened 
during  the  winter  months  and  shipped  to  the  large  markets  to  be 
sold.  This  business  is  one  of  considerable  magnitude  in  the  middle 
West.  The  gains  made  and  the  profit  secured  depend  on  a  number 
of  factors,  similar  to  those  that  condition  the  profitableness  of 
steer  fattening  (p.  261).  The  Illinois  station  conducted  two  ex- 
19 


290  PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

periments  with  different  rations  for  horses  of  this  kind : 20  One 
with  18  horses  for  24  days  and  the  other  with  24  horses  for  112 
days.  The  following  are  some  of  the  conclusions  to  which  these  led : 

1.  A  mixed  grain  ration  of  corn  and  oats,  when  fed  with  clover 
hay,  was  more  efficient  than  a  single  grain  ration  of  corn  for  pro- 
ducing large  gains. 

2.  A  ration  of  corn,  oats,  and  timothy  proved  satisfactory  for 
producing  finish  in  fleshing  horses  for  market,  but  was  materially 
improved  by  the  addition  of  linseed  meal. 

3.  A  ration  of  one-fourth  oats  and  three-fourths  corn  proved 
more  economical  than  one  of  half  oats  and  half  corn. 

4.  A  ration  of  corn  and  bran,  fed  in  proportions  of  4  to  1  by 
weight,  was  superior  to  an  all-corn  ration  for  producing  gains,  when 
fed  in  conjunction  with  clover  hay.     There  is  apparently  danger 
in  feeding  too  much  bran  for  best  results  when  clover  hay  furnishes 
the  roughage  part  of  the  ration.     The  bran  and  clover  combined 
produced  a  too  laxative  condition.    Exercise  had  a  retarding  effect 
upon  the  taking  on  of  flesh,  the  horses  receiving  no  exercise  making 
24  per  cent  larger  gains  than  those  having  a  daily  walk  of  2.8  miles. 

The  average  daily  gain  in  these  trials  ranged  from  about  two  to 
three  pounds  per  head.  According  to  Craig  and  Brettell,  horses  on 
full  feed  fattened  for  the  Chicago  market  receive  10  to  14  ears  of 
corn  three  times  a  day,  with  three  quarts  of  oats  and  bran  (1:2), 
and  hay  ad  lib.,  in  the  middle  of  the  forenoon  and  again  in  the 
middle  of  the  afternoon.  Recognizing  the  importance  of  a  long 
period  of  rest,  no  feed  is  given  between  6  or  7  at  night  and  the 
morning.  Linseed  meal  is  also  given,  as  it  aids  greatly  in  putting 
on  flesh  and  makes  the  skin  soft.  Satisfactory  gains  are  made  with 
good  feeding  and  care;  in  several  instances  an  average  gain  of  3.75 
pounds  per  head  daily  was  obtained  with  as  many  as  a  dozen  horses, 
and  in  exceptional  cases  a  gain  of  5  pounds  per  day  for  a  period 
of  90  days.21 

Rations  for  Work  Horses. — The  following  rations  will  show 
the  combinations  of  different  feeds  and  the  amounts  of  each  com- 
monly fed  in  the  various  sections  of  the  country: 

1.  12  pounds  timothy  hay,  12  pounds  oats. 

2.  12  pounds  timothy  hay,  7  pounds  oats,  7  pounds  corn. 

3.  10  pounds  timothy  hay,  6  pounds  cracked  corn,  6  pounds  wheat  bran, 
2  pounds  linseed  meal. 

4.  15  pounds  mixed  hay,  10  pounds  oats,  4  pounds  corn. 

20 Bulletin  141.  ^Breeders'  Gazette,  1899,  p.  781. 


FEEDING  HORSES  AND  MULES 


291 


5.  10  pounds  clover  hay,  8  pounds  oats,  6  pounds  corn,  2  pounds  wheat 
bran. 

C.  10  pounds  alfalfa  hay,  12  pounds  barley. 

7.  30  pounds  alfalfa  hay. 

8.  8  pounds  mixed  hay,  6  pounds  cornstalks,  G  pounds  corn,  6  pounds 
wheat  bran. 

9.  10  pounds  hay,  8  pounds  oats,  4  pounds  dried  brewers'  grains. 

10.  10  pounds  liay,  5  pounds  corn,  5  pounds  barley. 

Feeding  Mules. — "  The  work  animal  on  the  southern  farm  is 
the  mule  (Fig.  70).  He  it  is  that  bears  the  brunt  of  the  work  of 
cultivating  the  growing  crop,  harvests  it  when  mature,  and  hauls  it 


FIQ.  70. — A  team  of  farm  work  mules.     (Missouri  Station.) 

to  market.  In  the  South  the  horses  on  the  farm  remain  in  field 
or  stable  until  all  the  mules  are  harnessed,  and  are  only  called  into 
use  when  the  labor  to  be  done  is  more  than  the  mules  can  accomplish. 

"  The  mule  is  the  draft  animal  for  the  lumberman,  the  cotton 
and  sugar  planter,  the  contractor,  and  the  miner. 

"  The  horse  may  be  honored  for  his  procreative  ability ;  he  may 


292  PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

be  kept  on  the  best  in  the  land  because  of  his  beauty  and  style,  but 
the  mule  is  fed  that  he  may  labor."22 

It  is  commonly  stated  that  mules  make  more  economical  use 
of  the  feed  they  eat  than  horses,  and  that  their  cost  of  keep  is, 
therefore,  smaller.  Careful  investigations  have  failed  to  show, 
however,  that  there  is  a  sound  basis  for  this  claim.  After  a  long 
experience  with  thousands  of  army  mules,  Riley  maintains  23  that  a 
mule  requires  just  as  much  feed  as  a  horse  of  similar  dimensions; 
in  fact,  at  hard  work,  he  says  that  the  mule  will  eat  more  than  a 
horse  will  or  ever  can.  In  general,  an  animal  that  eats  little  is  a 
poor  animal,  regardless  of  its  class  or  kind.  The  mule  will  manage 
to  get  along  on  poor  feed  given  at  irregular  intervals,  but  this 
neglect  is  manifested  by  its  condition  and  efficiency  (Burkett). 

A  number  of  stations  have  conducted  experiments  with  the  two 
classes  of  animals  which  furnish  data  for  a  study  of  this  question. 
The  following  summary  figures  were  obtained  at  the  Missouri  and 
Ohio  stations,  the  animals  being  fed  oats  and  hay  in  one  series  of 
experiments,  and  corn  and  hay  in  another  series,  and  the  hay  being 
figured  at  $10  a  ton,  oats  at  40  cents  a  bushel,  and  shelled  corn 
50  cents  a  bushel. 

Average 
yearly  cost 
Average  daily  work  of  feed 

Average  for  mules 4  hours  42       minutes         $58.11 

Average  for  horses 4  hours  34%  minutes  58.01 

Summarizing  all  available  data  on  this  point,  the  Breeders'  Ga- 
zette 24  arrived  at  the  average  cost  of  feed  for  all  the  horses  per 
1000  pounds  as  $75.66  per  year,  and  for  the  mules,  $76.76.  "  These 
figures  indicate  that  the  mule  has  no  constitutional  advantage  over 
the  horse  in  cheapness  of  maintenance.  In  fact,  the  horse  has  a 
slight  lead  in  the  data  presented,  but  the  difference  is  so  small  as  to 
be  negligible.  In  actual  practice  it  is  probable  that  the  mule  is 
maintained  a  little  more  cheaply  than  the  horse,  because  oats  are  fed 
to  horses  more  commonly  than  to  mules.  The  practice  of  feeding 
oats  to  work  horses,  however,  is  largely  a  whim  of  the  feeder,  since 
numerous  tests  have  shown  that  corn  may  be  entirely  substituted 
with  satisfactory  results.  The  difference  between  the  two  is, thus 
largely  a  matter  of  custom,  so  far  as  light  is  shed  on  the  problem 
by  the  tests  mentioned." 

22  Kentucky  Bulletin  176. 

23  Burkett,  "  Feeding  Farm  Animals,"  p.  170. 

24  Sept.  10,  1914,  p.  390. 


FEEDING  HORSES  AND  MULES  293 

Mules  may  be  fed  the  same  feeds  and  similar  amounts  of  these  as 
horses,  and  what  has  been  said  in  the  preceding  about  feeding  this 
class  of  animals  applies,  in  general,  also  to  mules. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  State  the  general  laws  governing  the  use  of  feed  by  horses. 

2.  Give  a  common  ration  for  horses  in  your  locality,  and  show  in  how  far  it 

approaches  the  Wolff-Lehmann  and  the  Armsby  standards. 

3.  How  is  the  work  done  by  horses  measured? 

4.  State  the  main  principles  of  feeding  (a)   foal,  (6)  the  mare,   (c)  work 

horses. 

5.  When  are  horses  preferably  watered,  and  how  many  times  fed  daily? 

6.  Should  horses  receive  all  the  hay  they  will  eat?    Why? 

7.  Discuss  the  value  of  different  rough  feeds  for  work  horses. 

8.  State  briefly  the  value  of  silage  and  of  roots  for  horses. 

9.  Give  the  main  concentrates  fed  horses,  and  state  briefly  their  relative 

values. 

10.  Give  the  system  of  feeding  farm  horses  during  winter,  when  idle  or  doing 

light  work. 

11.  How  are  horses  fattened  for  market? 

12.  Which  makes  the  more  economical  use  of  feed  eaten,  the  horse  or  the 

mule? 

13.  Is  a  small  consumption  of  feed  a  desirable  point  in  farm  animals? 

Literature  on  Horses. — Gay,  "  Productive  Horse  Husbandry,"  Phila- 
delphia, 1914.  Roberts,  "  The  Horse,"  New  York,  1905.  Johnstone,  "  The 
Horse  Book,"  Chicago,  1908.  "  Heavy  Horses,  Breeds  and  Management," 
London,  1905.  "  Light  Horses,  Breeds  and  Management,"  London,  1904. 
Langworthy,  "  Principles  of  Horse  Feeding,"  Farmers'  Bulletin  170,  1903. 

Experiment  Station  Publications  on  Horse  and  Mule  Feeding:  Florida, 
b.  72;  Illinois,  b.  141;  Indiana,  b.  97;  Iowa,  b.  18,  109,  c.  6;  Kansas,  b.  186; 
Kentucky,  b.  176;  Maine,  r.  '91;  Maryland,  b.  51;  Massachusetts,  b.  99, 
(Hatch)  b.  94;  Michigan,  b.  254;  Mississippi,  b.  15;  Missouri,  c.  27,  b.  114; 
Montana,  b.  95,  97;  Nebraska,  b.  130;  ext.  b.  28;  New  Hampshire,  b.  82, 
129;  New  Jersey,  r.  '93,  b.  92;  North  Carolina,  b.  189;  North  Dakota,  b.  26, 
45;  Ohio,  b.  195;  Oklahoma,  r.  '98,  '99;  Pennsylvania,  b.  117,  122;  Utah, 
b.  77,  101;  Virginia,  b.  80;  Wyoming,  r.  12,  b.  98;  Ottawa,  r  .'06;  Bur.  An. 
Industry,  c.  168;  Farmers'  B.  170;  Office  Exp.  Stations,  b.  125. 


CHAPTER  XXY 
FEEDING  SWINE 

Feeding  Standards  for  Swine. — Standards  for  feeding  swine 
have  been  established  by  Wolff-Lehmann  as  given  in  the  following 
table : 

The  Wolff-Lehmann  Standards  for  Swine,  per  1000  Pounds  Live  Weight 


Digestible 

Age, 
months 

Weight, 
pounds 

Dry 

matter 

Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

N.  R. 

and  fat* 

Brood  sows,  with  pigs  .  .  . 

22 

2.5 

16.4 

1:6.6 

Fattening  swine  — 

First  period  

36 

4.5 

26.6 

1:5.9 

Second  period  

32 

4.0 

25.1 

1  :  6.3 

Third  period           .  .  . 

25 

2.7 

ic  q 

1-70 

Growing  swine  — 

2-3 

50 

44 

7.6 

J.O.  *7 

30.3 

J-  •     I   »\J 

1:4.0 

3-5 

100 

35 

4.8 

24.1 

1:5.0 

Breeding  stock  • 

5-6 

120 

32 

3.7 

22.2 

1:6.0 

6-8 

200 

28 

2.8 

19.4 

1:7.0 

8-12 

250 

25 

2.1 

15.8 

1:7.5 

f 

2-3 

50 

44 

7.6 

30.3 

1:4.0 

3-5 

100 

35 

5.0 

24.9 

1:5.0 

Fattening  stock  \ 

5-6 

150 

33 

4.3 

23.7 

1:5.5 

6-8 

200 

30 

3.6 

21.4 

1:6.0 

( 

8-12 

300 

26 

3.0 

19.0 

1:6.4 

*  Given  separately  by  Wolff-Lehmann. 

Feed  Requirements  of  Swine. — Next  to  the  dairy  cow,  the 
hog  is  the  most  economical  producer  of  human  food  materials  among 
our  farm  animals,  and  it  stands  close  to  the  cow  in  this  respect. 
Jordan  has  shown  that  100  pounds  digestible  organic  nutrients 
in  the  ration  produce  the  following  amount  of  edible  solids  in 
the  form  of  the  various  animal  products : 

Milk,  18  pounds. 

Pork,  15.6  pounds. 

Veal,  8.1  pounds. 

Poultry  or  eggs,  3.5  pounds  to  5.1  pounds. 

Beef,  2.75  pounds. 

Mutton,  2.60  pounds.1 

While  these  are  only  average  figures,  and  may  not  hold  true  in 
individual  cases,  fhey  show  that  the  hog  has  a  wonderful  capacity 


1 "  The  Feeding  of  Animals,"  p.  405. 
294 


FEEDING  SWINE  295 

for  converting  feeding  stuffs  into  human  food,  and  he  often  does  it 
under  very  adverse  conditions  as  regards  care  and  attention,  and 
without  being  particular  as  to  either  the  character  of  the  feed  or 
the  quarters  he  occupies.  No  farm  animal  appreciates  good  feed 
and  comfortable  quarters,  however,  or  responds  more  readily  to 
good  treatment,  than  do  swine,  but  none  are  more  abused  in  these 
respects.  The  pig  is  an  omnivorous  eater  and  can  fatten  on  feed  that 
other  stock  will  not  touch,  but  the  best  results  in  feeding  pigs,  as  in 
the  case  of  other  farm  animals,  are  secured  when  they  receive 
good,  wholesome  feed  and  are  given  careful  attention.  Under 
these  conditions,  swine  raising  is  especially  profitable,  and  while 
it  requires  a  smaller  investment  in  animals  and  equipment,  it  will, 
as  a  rule,  yield  quicker  and  relatively  larger  results  than  any  other 
branch  of  animal  husbandry. 


FIG.  71. — A  group  of  young  Berkshire  pigs.      (Iddings.) 

Swine  are  remarkable  producers  of  fat  (Fig.  71).  The  com- 
position of  the  increase  in  body  weight  in  the  case  of  fattening 
swine,  as  determined  by  Lawes  and  Gilbert,  is  as  follows :  Protein, 
1.4  per  cent;  fat,  71.5  per  cent;  mineral  matter,  0.1  per  cent;  water, 
22.0  per  cent,  showing  that  the  fattening  process  in  the  case  of 
these  animals,  still  more  than  with  other  fattening  stock,  consists 
largely  of  an  accumulation  of  body  fat  (p.  20). 

Birth  Weight  and  Gains  Made  by  Pigs. — Pigs,  when  far- 
rowed, will  weigh  from  about  one  and  a  half  to  three  pounds  each ; 
two  and  a  half  pounds  may  be  considered  an  average  weight  for  our 
common,  medium-sized  breeds.  The  number  of  pigs  in  a  litter  will 
average  about  nine.  Young  pigs  ordinarily  gain  more  for  every  week 
as  they  grow  older,  but  there  is  a  gradual  decrease  in  the  rate  of 
gain  to  body  weight.  The  largest  returns  for  the  amount  of  feed 


296 


PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


eaten  are  secured  from  young  pigs;  or,  to  put  it  in  another  way, 
the  amount  of  feed  required  for  a  pound  of  gain  is  smallest  in  the 
case  of  young  pigs,  and  increases  steadily  with  advancing  age  (Fig. 
72).  The  fact  is  brought  out  in  a  striking  manner  by  the  follow- 
ing compilation  by  Henry2  of  over  five  hundred  feeding  trials 
conducted  at  American  experiment  stations  with  over  2200  pigs 
The  Relation  of  Weight  of  Pigs  to  Feed  Consumed  and  Rate  of  Gain 


Feed 

Weight  of  pigs, 
pounds 

Number 
of  animals 

Average 
live 
weight, 
pounds 

Average 
feed  eaten 
per  day, 
pounds 

eaten 
daily  per 
100 
pounds 
live 
weight, 

Average 
gain  per 
day, 
pounds 

Feed 
for  100 
pounds 
gain, 
pounds 

pounds 

15  to    50 

174 

38 

2.2 

6.0 

0.8 

293 

50  to  100 

417 

78 

3.4 

4.3 

0.8 

400 

100  to  150 

495 

128 

4.8 

3.8 

1.1 

437 

150  to  200 

489 

174 

5.9 

3.5 

1.2 

482 

200  to  250 

300 

226 

6.6 

2.9 

1.3 

498 

250  to  300 

223 

271 

7.4 

2.7 

1.5 

511 

300  to  350 

105 

320      j       7.5 

2.4 

1.4 

535 

in  all.  In  compiling  the  results  given  in  the  table,  six  pounds  of 
skim  milk  and  twelve  pounds  whey  were  rated  equal  to  one  pound 
of  concentrates  (one  feed  unit) .  The  table  shows  the  average  weight 
of  the  pigs  in  each  group,  the  feed  eaten  daily  and  per  100  pounds 
live  weight,  the  daily  gains  made,  and  the  feed  per  100  pounds 
gain  (Fig.  73). 


WEIGHT  OF 
PIG5-LB5 

100      200       300      400       500      6C 

15-50 
50-100 
100-150 
150-200 
200-250 
250-300 
300-350 

FIG.  72. — The  amount  of  feed  consumed  per  100  pounds  of  gain  for  fattening  pigs  increases 
with  their  live  weights. 


2  "  Feeds  and  Feeding,"  10th  ed.}  p.  502. 


FEEDING  SWINE  297 

The  greater  economy  of  young  growing  pigs  as  compared  with 
older  ones  for  making  gains  from  a  given  amount  of  feed  is  plainly 
seen  from  this  table.  While  pigs  of  less  than  50  pounds  live  weight 
required  only  293  pounds  of  feed  per  100  pounds  gain,  pigs  weigh- 
ing 150  to  200  pounds  required  482  pounds,  and  hogs  weighing 
over  300  pounds  required  535  pounds  per  100  pounds  gain.  This 
difference  does  not  represent  one  of  actual  feed  value  in  the 
products,  however,  as  the  carcass  of  the  mature  hog  contains  more 
dry  matter  and  more  fat  than  that  of  young  animals,  but  the  feeder 
selling  young  animals  has  the  benefit  of  the  situation,  as  he  is 
paid  for  the  total  weight  furnished,  and  not  only  for  the  dry  matter 
or  edible  portion  of  the  carcass. 


FIG.  73. — Well-fed,  busy  youngsters  that  will  grow  into  good  porkers.     (Henry.) 

Eesults  similar  to  those  shown  in  the  preceding  table  were  ob- 
tained in  the  extensive  swine-feeding  experiments  conducted  at  the 
Copenhagen  station  during  the  nineties.3  In  these  trials  it  required, 
on  the  average,  376  feed  units  to  produce  100  pounds  of  gain  with 
pigs  weighing  from  35  to  75  pounds  each,  and  639  pounds  with  hogs 
of  275  to  315  pounds  weight,  there  being  a  gradual  increase  from  the 
former  to  the  latter  figure  with  increasing  weights  of  animals  fed. 

Preparation  of  Feed  for  Swine. — It  has  been  shown  that  the 
digestibility  of  feeding  stuffs  is  not,  as  a  rule,  materially  altered  by 
different  methods  of  preparation,  like  cooking,  cutting,  grinding, 
rolling,  etc.  (p.  67).  In  view  of  the  special  importance  of  this 

3  Report  30,  1895;  Exp.  Sta,  Record  7,  p.  245, 


298  PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

question  especially  in  feeding  swine,  we  shall  give  briefly  the  evidence 
of  experimental  work  along  this  line. 

Grinding  Grain. — Trials  conducted  for  ten  years  at  the  Wis- 
consin station 4  show  that  an  average  saving  of  6  per  cent  was 
secured  by  grinding  shelled  corn  for  pigs;  in  11  out  of  18  trials 
conducted  there  was  a  saving  and  in  7  cases  a  loss  by  grinding  the 
corn.  If  corn  is  worth  50  cents  a  bushel,  there  is,  therefore,  a  saving 
of  3  cents  per  bushel  by  grinding,  out  of  which  the  labor  and  cost 
of  grinding  must  be  paid.  It  is  evident  from  this  result  that  grind- 
ing corn  for  fattening  pigs  in  general  does  not  pay.  In  these  trials 
the  pigs  fed  ground  corn  ate  more  feed  and  gained  more  rapidly 
in  a  given  time  than  those  receiving  whole  corn.  This  is  doubtless 
the  reason  why  some  farmers  believe  that  pigs  do  better  on  ground 
than  on  whole  corn.  According  to  a  summary  by  Eommel 5  of  19 
trials  with  297  pigs,  it  required  524  pounds  whole  corn  or  479 
pounds  meal  to  produce  100  pounds  gain,  a  saving  of  Sl/2  per  cent, 
or  a  little  higher  than  found  in  the  Wisconsin  trials.  Similar  ex- 
periments with  small  grains  and  peas  have  shown  that  there  is  a 
saving  of  12.3  per  cent  in  feed  by  grinding.6  It  is  advisable,  there- 
fore, to  grind  these  grains  in  feeding  pigs  or  to  soak  them  before 
feeding  (see  below). 

Cooking  Feed. — Cooking  feed  has  now  been  abandoned  for  all 
classes  of  farm  animals  except  occasionally  for  swine.  The  question 
of  the  advisability  of  cooking  grain  for  fattening  hogs  was  studied 
by  a  number  of  stations  in  the  eighties.  Henry  gives  a  sum- 
mary of  17  trials  at  five  different  stations  with  cooked  and  un- 
cooked grain  (corn,  barley,  peas,  rye,  or  shorts,  fed  separately  or  in 
mixtures)  for  swine,  showing  that  in  all  but  one  trial  there  was  a 
marked  increase  in  the  feed  required  per  100  pounds  gain  when  this 
was  cooked  (steamed)  ;  it  required,  on  the  average,  490  pounds  of 
uncooked  feed  per  100  pounds  gain  and  5G1  pounds  of  cooked  feed — 
a  loss  of  nearly  15  per  cent  in  the  efficiency  of  the  feed,  not  con- 
sidering the  expense  of  cooking.  This  practice  has  now  been  gen- 
erally abandoned,  except  in  the  case  of  a  few  feeds,  like  potatoes, 
field  peas,  roots,  chopped  musty  hay,  etc.,  which  are  occasionally 
steamed  by  some  feeders  to  induce  a  larger  consumption  or  improve 
the  palatability  of  the  feed  (p.  67). 

Soaking  Feed. — Soaking  or  wetting  feed  for  swine  is  practised 
by  some  feeders  who  believe  they  obtain  better  results  thereby.  It 

4  Report  1900. 

5  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  Bulletin  47. 
c  Loc.  cit. 


FEEDING  SWINE 


299 


has  been  shown,  however,  that  no  decided  advantage  is  secured  by 
this  method.  The  average  results  of  twelve  trials  conducted  at 
eight  different  stations,  as  shown  by  Rommel  (loc.  cit.),  came  as 
follows:  Feed  required  per  100  pounds  gain,  dry  feed  444  pounds, 
wet  feed  434  pounds,  a  difference  of  2  per  cent  in  favor  of  the  latter 
feed.  The  pigs,  in  general,  ate  more  soaked  or  wet  feed  than  dry 
feed,  and  often  made  slightly  better  gains  on  the  former  feed,  but 
the  returns  per  unit  of  feed  eaten  were  not,  as  we  have  seen,  appre- 
ciably improved  by  the  method  of  preparation;  nor  has  it  been 
shown  that  the  amount  of  water  fed  in  the  slop  of  pigs  has  any 
material  effect  on  the  gains  made  or  on  the  utilization  of  the  feed.7 

Swine  Feeds. — The  various  feeds  used  in  feeding  swine  have 
been  previously  discussed,  and  we  shall  consider  here  only  a  few 
of  the  main  swine  feeds,  especially  with  reference  to  feeding  prob- 
lems in  different  sections  of  the  country. 


I      234567Q9     10 


••MILLION  BUSHELS  Of  INDIAN  CORN 

^^  NUMBER  OF  SWINE,  MILLIONS 

NUMBER  OF  CATTLE.  MILLIONS 

FIG.  74. — Diagram  showing  the  number  of  bushels  of  corn  and  number  of  swine  and 
cattle  listed  in  the  twelve   leading   corn-growing  States  in  the  Union,  according  to  the  census 

7  Indiana  Bulletin  80;  see  also  Copenhagen  Station  Report  10,  1887. 


300  PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

Indian  corn  is  by  far  the  most  important  single  swine  feed  in 
this  country.  The  States  in  the  corn  belt  are  growing  more  pigs 
than  any  other  section,  and  there  is,  in  general,  a  parallelism 
in  the  different  States  between  the  two  industries,  corn  growing 
and  pork  production  (Fig.  74).  The  corn  is  mostly  fed  on  the  cob, 
and  the  labor  and  expense  of  shelling  and  grinding  are  thus  saved. 
Trials  at  a  large  number  of  stations  have  shown  that  it  requires, 
on  the  average,  about  555  pounds  of  shelled  corn  per  100  pounds 
gain,  or  that  a  bushel  of  shelled  corn  (56  pounds)  will  make  very 
nearly  10  pounds  of  pork.  The  pigs  made  an  average  daily  gain  of 
0.98  pound  in  these  trials,  which  were  conducted  in  more  than  a 
dozen  different  States  and  included  thirty  different  series  of  ex- 
periments. 

Corn  is,  above  all,  a  fattening  feed,  and  stands  at  the  head  of 
desirable  concentrates  for  finishing  fattening  swine.  Both  on 
account  of  its  relatively  low  protein  content  and  high  starch  content 
(N.  R.,  1 :  9.5)  arid  its  low  content  of  mineral  matter,  it  is  not  well 
adapted  for  feeding  alone  to  young  growing  pigs,  and  much  danger 
has  been  done  to  our  swine  industry  through  the  abuse  of  this  grain 
as  an  exclusive  feed  for  such  pigs.  The  studies  of  this  problem  by 
Sanborn  and  Henry  in  the  eighties  were  some  of  the  earliest  con- 
tributions of  the  Missouri  and  Wisconsin  stations  to  the  science  of 
animal  nutrition  and  have  been  of  the  greatest  importance  to 
American  swine-breeders. 

Feeding  for  Fat  and  for  Lean. — Henry's  striking  experiments 
on  "  feeding  for  fat  and  for  lean  "  8  were  especially  adapted  to  bring 
the  attention  of  farmers  to  the  danger  of  using  corn  as  a  sole  feed 
for  young  pigs  (Figs.  75  and  76).  In  these  trials  one  lot  of  pigs 
was  fed  corn  meal  only,  and  the  other  received  skim  milk,  wheat 
middlings,  and  dried  blood  or  other  combinations  of  protein  feeds. 
The  method  of  feeding  followed  greatly  influenced  both  the  gains 
made  by  the  pigs  and  the  composition  of  their  bodies.  The  corn 
ration  produced  relatively  low  gains  in  live  weight,  and  the  bodies 
of  the  pigs  were  abnormal  as  regards  the  development  of  the 
skeleton,  muscles,  and  internal  organs.  The  amount  of  blood  for 
each  100  pounds  of  dressed  carcass  of  the  corn-fed  pigs  was  greatly 
decreased  below  normal.  The  tenderloin  and  other  muscles  were 
relatively  light,  the  proportion  of  internal  fat  and  that  stored  within 
the  muscular  tissue  was  abnormally  high,  and  the  strength  of  the 

8  Wisconsin  Reports,  1886-1890. 


FEEDING  SWINE 


301 


bones  of  the  corn-fed  pigs  was  greatly  diminished,  resulting,  in 
general,  in  a  weakly  animal  that  would  fall  an  easy  prey  to  disease 
and  accidents. 

The  lesson  brought  out  by  these  and  other  experiments  along 
this  line  is  that  young  animals  must  receive  a  feed  or  a  com- 
bination of  feeds  fairly  rich  in  protein  and  mineral  matter  (N.  E., 


FIG.  75. 


FIG.  76 


FIGS.  75  and  76. — Cuts  of  pigs  fed  for  "fat  and 'for  lean";  Fig.  75  shows'the  disposition 
of  fat  and  lean  in  the  necks  of  the  pigs,  and  Fig.  76  the  fat  and  the  lean  of  the  loin  or  small 
of  the  back  of  the  pigs.  A,  fed  for  lean;  B,  fed  for  fat.  Note  the  large  size  of  the  individual 
muscles  of  the  protein-fed  pigs  over  those  fed  carbohydrates.  Corn  should  be  supplemented 
by  clover,  shorts,  peas,  skim  milk,  and  similar  feeds  to  bring  the  best  results  in  feeding  pigs. 
(Wisconsin  Station.) 

1 :  7  or  less),  that  will  develop  a  body  with  normal  bone  structure, 
muscles,  and  internal  organs.  As  corn  is  deficient  in  both  these 
constituents,  pigs  require  supplementary  feeds  of  nitrogenous  char- 
acter (skim  milk,  middlings,  peas,  tankage,  dried  blood,  etc.)  for 
a  normal  growth,  or,  at  least,  an  addition  of  wood  ashes,  ground 
bone,  or  ground  rock  phosphate  (floats),  to  build  up  a  strong  frame. 
Where  corn  does  not  do  well,  other  cereals  may  take  its  place 


'302  PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

to  advantage  in  the  feeding  of  pigs;  wheat,  barley,  rye,  kafir  corn, 
field  peas,  cowpeas,  soybeans,  etc.,  are  all  valuable  swine  feeds  when 
it  is  practicable  to  feed  them,,  either  in  combination  with  Indian 
corn  or  with  each  other.  Barley  occupies  a  similar  place  to  the 
farmers  of  California  (and  of  northern  Europe)  as  corn  does  in 
the  corn-growing  States,  and  has  the  advantage  over  corn  in  being 
higher  both  in  protein  and  ash.  It  will  give  best  results  with  pigs 
if  rolled  or  ground  before  feeding.  Oats  are  not  a  satisfactory 
swine  feed  on  account  of  their  high  fiber  content,  except  for  breeding 
stock  and  shoats  that  are  not  being  fattened.  In  the  case  of  these 
animals  they  may  be  fed  whole,  scattered  on  the  ground  or  on  a 
feeding  floor,  so  as  to  give  the  animals  exercise  at  the  same  time 
(Fig.  77). 


FIG.  77. — Meal  time  for  the  swine  herd.  Intelligent  feeding  and  careful  management 
make  well-bred  hogs  a  source  of  profit  on  most  farms.  Note  construction  of  individual 
hog  houses.  (Wisconsin  Station.) 

Dairy  products  form  a  most  important  group  of  swine  feeds 
in  dairy  sections,  and  are  used  extensively  as  feeds  supplementary 
to  Indian  corn.  The  results  obtained  in  feeding  skim  milk  and 
corn  to  pigs  depend,  to  a  large  extent,  on  the  proportions  in  which 
the  two  feeds  are  given.  Skim  milk  alone  will  produce  very  un- 
satisfactory results  in  feeding  pigs,9  and  more  than  five  or  six 
pounds  of  skim  milk  per  pound  of  corn  is  also  likely  to  give  poor 
returns.  The  ratio  of  skim  milk  to  grain  to  be  fed  will  depend 
upon  the  relative  price  of  the  two  feeds  and  on  the  age  of  the 
animals;  fed  to  pigs  shortly  after  weaning,  larger  proportions  of 
milk  will  give  better  results  than  with  older  animals.  The  results 

"Utah  Bulletin  57;  Conn.  (Storrs)  Bulletin  39. 


FEEDING  SWINE 


303 


of  a  large  number  of  trials  at  the  Wisconsin  station  and  else- 
where showed  that  a  ration  of  3  to  1  will  give  most  economical 
results  in  gain  of  live  weight.  Fed  in  the  ratio  of  1  to  3  pounds 
milk  for  each  pound  of  corn  meal,  Henry  found  10  that  327  pounds 
of  milk  were  required  to  save  100  pounds  of  meal;  in  the  ratio 
of  3-5 : 1,  446  pounds;  5-7 :  1,  574  pounds,  and  7-9  :  1,  552  pounds, 
and,  on  the  average  for  all  trials,  475  pounds  (p.  207). 

Corn  is  the  best  supplemental  grain  to  feed  with  skim  milk  or 
buttermilk  for  growing  pigs ;  with  whey,  on  the  other  hand,  wheat 
shorts,  pea  meal,  or  linseed  meal  as  a  part  of  the  grain  ration  is  to 
be  preferred,  being  mixed  with  corn  in  increasing  proportions  of  the 
latter  as  the  animals  approach  maturity.11  Trials  made  in  this 


FIG.  78. — Making  pork  on  rape  and  oats.     The  average  returns  for  three  years  on  this 
pasture  were  $22.84  per  acre.     (Missouri  Station.) 

country  and  abroad  have  shown  that  1000  pounds  of  ordinary  whey, 
when  fed  with  grain  feed,  such  as  corn  meal  and  barley  or  shorts, 
will  save  100  pounds  of  grain  in  feeding  fattening  pigs,  and  that 
two  pounds  of  whey  are  worth  about  as  much  as  one  pound  of 
skim  milk  or  buttermilk  in  feeding  swine  (p.  209).  Canadian 
experiments  have  shown  no  appreciable  difference  in  the  feeding 
value  of  sweet  and  sour  whey,  but  whey  run  through  a  separator  or 
from  separator  skim  milk  is  worth  only  75  to  80  per  cent  as  much  as 
common  whey  obtained  in  the  manufacture  of  American  cheddar 
cheese.12 

10  Wisconsin  Report  1895;  see  also  Cornell  Bulletin  199. 
"Wisconsin  Report  8,  p.  38;   Ontario  Report,  1896. 
"Ontario  Reports,  1897  and  1909;  Wisconsin  Report  8,  p.  47. 


304  PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

Pastures. — As  with  other  farm  animals,  swine  will  make  the 
cheapest  gains  when  grazing  or  harvesting  their  own  feed  (Figs. 
78  and  79) ;  pasture  only,  without  any  supplementary  grain  feed, 
will  not,  however,  produce  satisfactory  gains,  whether  this  con- 
sists of  mixed  grasses,  clover,  or  alfalfa.  In  trials  at  the  Utah 
station  13  pigs  weighing  60  to  75  pounds  when  on  pasture  (alfalfa 
and  mixed  grasses,  chiefly  the  former)  gained  only  0.2  pound  daily; 
pigs  receiving  one-half  grain  ration  when  on  pasture  gained  0.7 
pound;  and  those  receiving  a  full  grain  ration  gained  1.2  pounds 
daily.  The  pasturage  saved  about  15  per  cent  in  the  amount  of 
grain  required  for  the  production  of  100  pounds  gain.  The 


FIG.  79. — Making  pork  on  blue  grass.     The  average  returns  for  four  years  on  this  pasture 
were  $15.18  per  acre.     (Missouri  Station.) 

practice  of  feeding  pastured  pigs  small  grain  rations  is  an  econom- 
ical method  of  carrying  pigs  over  summer  that  are  to  be  fattened 
later,  since  such  pigs  will  make  rapid  gains  when  put  on  full 
feed,  and  at  a  slightly  less  cost  than  those  fed  a  full  ration  from 
the  start  (Utah  Bulletin  94). 

Alfalfa  pasture  alone  will  furnish  but  little  more  than  a  main- 
tenance ration  for  pigs,14  but  if  grain  is  fed,  all  of  this  can  then  be 
used  for  production.  Two  pounds  of  corn  or  more  per  100  pounds 
of  pigs  have  been  found  more  profitable  than  a  lighter  ration.15 
When  grain  is  fed,  an  acre  of  alfalfa  will  furnish  pasture  for  at 

13  Bulletin  94. 

"Oklahoma  Report,  1899;  Mississippi  Report,  1905;  Nebraska  Bul- 
letin 99. 

15  Nebraska  Bulletin  99 ;  Colorado  Bulletin  2. 


FEEDING  SWINE  305 

least  2000  pounds  of  pigs  (15  to  20  shbats  of  medium  weight), 
and  will  produce  500  to  1000  pounds  of  pork,  according  to  the  kind 
of  pigs  fed,  pasture  and  weather  conditions. 

Temporary  Pastures. — Eape  (Fig.  78),  soybean,  cowpeas,  In- 
dian corn,  sorghum,  etc.,  furnish  excellent  feed  for  growing  pigs 
and  brood  sows  and  will  enable  the  animals  to  make  rapid  gains 
when  supplemented  with  grain.  Pork  can  be  produced  more 
cheaply  by  feeding  grain  with  green  forage  than  by  feeding  either 
alone.  The  value  of  rape  pasture  for  feeding  swine,  especially  for 
breeding  sows,  is  well  understood  (p.  138). 

Hogging  down  corn  is  a  common  practice  of  harvesting  a  corn 
field  in  the  corn-growing  States.  The  method  is  especially  adapted 
to  sections  where  labor  is  scarce.  The  corn  is  generally  allowed  to 
nearly  mature,  and  pigs  of  medium  weight  (80  to  120  pounds)  or 
brood  sows  are  turned  in  to  gather  the  corn.  TheySrill  eat  the 
ear  corn  and  leave  a  great  deal  of  the  coarser  part  of  the  plant, 
husks,  cornstalks,  and  cobs  to  be  plowed  under,  which,  with'  the 
manure  from  the  hogs,  will  greatly  improve  the  humus  content  and 
the  fertility  of  the  land.  Incidentally  the  pigs  get  considerable 
exercise  and  fresh  air  and  will  be  less  susceptible  to  disease  than 
pigs  fed  in  a  dry  lot.  When  the  fat  hogs  are  removed  from  the 
field,  brood  sows  and  pigs  may  be  turned  in;  they  will  clean  up  and 
make  good  use  of  what  is  left.  Hogs  running  at  large  in  a  field 
or  pasture  will  be  put  in  prime  condition  for  market  if  fattened 
in  a  pen  for  a  period  of  three  to  four  months  by  being  fed  all  the 
corn  they  will  eat,  with  plenty  of  pure  water.  According  to  Bur- 
kett,16  a  5-  to  10-acre  field  of  good  corn  will  carry  50  to  75  hogs 
from  the  shoat  to  the  finished  period.  The  total  quantity  of  pork 
produced  from  a  given  acreage,  when  hogged  down,  will  be  greater 
than  when  ear  corn  or  snapped  corn  is  fed  in  pens. 

Feeding  the  Boar. — The  feeding  of  the  boar  should  vary  ac- 
cording to  his  age  and  the  season  of  the  year.  Thin,  growing  boars 
need  more  grain  than  older  ones,  but  neither  should  be  fed  so 
that  they  will  grow  fat,  since  this  will  impair  their  breeding 
qualities,  just  as  much  as  having  them  in  a  thin  body  condi- 
tion. The  boar  should  receive  only  as  much  grain  as  he  will 
clean  up  readily,  and  should  have  a  chance  to  exercise  in  summer 
time  in  a  pasture  lot,  and  in  the  winter  in  a  small  yard  adjoining 
the  pen.  Succulent  feed  should  be  provided  throughout  the  year  if 

""Feeding  Farm  Animals,"  p.  254;   see  also  Farmers'  Bulletin,  G14, 
Iowa  Bulletin  143. 
20 


306  PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

possible:  During  the  summer  by  pasturage  or  cut  green  feed, 
giving  enough  grain  to  maintain  a  good  condition  of  flesh;  during 
the  winter  months  either  roots,  pumpkins,  or  culled  fruit  may  be 
supplied.  An  allowance  not  over  a  pound  daily  of  grain  per  100 
pounds  live  weight  will  be  sufficient  while  on  the  summer  pasture, 
and  during  the  winter,  two  pounds  grain  and  four  to  six  pounds 
roots.  The  grain  should  contain  a  considerable  proportion  of  pro- 
tein, as,  e.g.,  shorts  and  fine-ground  oats  (2  to  1  or  3  to  1).  Skim 
milk  is  especially  valuable  for  young  boars  as  the  breeding  season 
approaches,  and  during  this  time  two  or  three  pounds  grain  may  be 
fed;  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  corn,  ground  oats,  and  middlings 
will  prove  an  excellent  combination. 

Feeding  the  Sow  and  the  Pigs. — The  brood  sow  must  be  kept 
in  a  good  body  condition  at  all  times,  so  far  as  possible,  so  as  to  be 
able  to  give  birth  to  thrifty,  vigorous  pigs,  and  to  furnish  an  abun- 
dance of  milk  for  a  healthy,  rapid  growth.  Succulent  feeds  are 
an  essential  part  of  the  ration  both  in  summer  and  winter.  A 
farrow,  matured  sow  will  keep  in  good  condition  on  good  clover 
or  alfalfa  pasture  alone,  but  a  young  sow  must  receive  about  one 
to  two  pounds  of  grain  daily  per  100  pounds  weight  in  addition; 
e.g.,  a  mixture,  of  oats  or  barley  and  shorts,  with  a  little  corn  so  as 
to  keep  the  nutritive  ratio  down  to  about  1  to  6  (p.  294).  But  little 
grain  is  fed  for  a  few  days  before  farrowing,  and  the  sow  is  given 
cooling  feeds  of  a  laxative  nature,  as  roots,  and  a  slop  made  up 
largely  of  bran  or  shorts.  For  the  first  twenty-four  hours  after 
farrowing  no  feed  is  given,  but  all  the  lukewarm  water  she  will 
drink;  she  is  then  given  limited  feed  for  three  or  four  days,  and  is 
slowly  brought  up  to  full  feed  in  the  course  of  about  ten  days.  A 
grain  mixture  of  ground  corn,  ground  oats,  and  shorts  (1:  1:2), 
mixed  with  three  to  five  pounds  skim  milk,  will  give  excellent  re- 
sults at  this  time;  she  should  also  be  given  some  roots  and  be  put 
on  pasture  as  soon  as  possible.  As  much  of  the  grain  is  fed  as  she 
will  eat  up  readily. 

After  two  or  three  weeks,  the  pigs  should  be  given  some  feed  in 
ia  small  trough  of  their  own,  and  this  amount  increased  as  rapidly 
as  they  are  able  to  clean  up  more.  When  the  sows  and  pigs  are 
on  pasture  they  will  eat  much  less  grain,  but  should  be  allowed 
some  grain  all  the  time,  as  it  will  prevent  the  sow  from  getting 
too  thin,  and  will  enable  the  pigs  to  grow  more  rapidly;  gains 
made  at  this  time  are  much  cheaper  than  those-  made  later  on,  as 
has  been  shown  (p.  258,  Fig.  80).  After  the  pigs  are  about  three 
months  old,  they  should  weigh  60  pounds  or  better;  they  should 


FEEDING  SWINE  307 

get  their  nourishment  largely  from  pasturage,  and  only  one-half 
grain  feed  is  given,  unless  feed  is  cheap,  in  which  case  full  grain 
feed  may  be  continued  until  they  are  weaned  at  four  to  five  months 
of  age.  If  the  sow  is  to  raise  two  litters  a  year,  the  pigs  must  be 
weaned  at  a  considerably  earlier  age,  viz.,  from  one  and  one-half 
to  three  weeks  old,  in  order  to  get  the  sow  bred  again  in  time.  To 
do  well,  pigs  weaned  at  this  age  must  have  had  grain  before  weaning 
and  must  also  receive  skim  milk  with  their  grain  feed  after  this  pe- 
riod. If  skim  milk  is  not  available,  a  slop  is  made  of  hot  water  and 
rolled  or  ground  barley,  oats,  and  wheat  shorts  (1:1:2).  A  little 
digester  tankage  added  to  the  slop  before  feeding  will  give  good 
returns. 

The  amount  of  grain  fed  to  pigs  on  pasture  should  vary  accord- 
ing to  the  kind  and  condition  of  the  pasture,  price  of  grain,  thrifti- 


FIG.  80. — A  thrifty  bunch  of  sows  and  pigs  crowding  around  the  feed  troughs— a  familiar 
farm  scene.     (Pacific  Rural  Press.) 

ness  of  the  pigs,  etc.  The  Oregon  station  17  gives  the  following  as 
a  safe  rule  to  go  by  with  regard  to  feeding  grain  to  pigs  on  pasture : 
When  the  price  of  pork  on  foot  at  the  farm  is  more  than  three 
times  the  price  of  grain,  a  rather  heavy  ration  should  be  given; 
when  the  price  of  pork  is  five  times  or  less  than,  the  price  of  grain, 
a  minimum  amount  should  be  fed. 

The  growing  period  of  pigs  will  last  until  they  are  five  to  six 
months  old,  depending  on  the  method  of  feeding  practised,  usually 
about  five  months  old,  when  they  will  have  reached  a  weight  of 
nearly  100  pounds;  they  are  then  put  on  fattening  rations. 

The  Dietrich  Standard  for  Pigs. — Dietrich  concludes,  from 
careful  studies  of  the  nutrition  of  pigs  conducted  during  a  series 
of  years,  that  one  and  the  same  pig  under  different  conditions  may 

17  Circular  Bulletin  18. 


308 


PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


maintain  its  live  weight  on  distinctly  different  quantities  of  the  same 
combinations  of  feed.  This  variation  appears  to  be  due  to  the  plane 
of  nutrition  upon  which  the  pigs  have  been  maintained  previous 
to  the  time  of  making  the  maintenance  experiment.  He  gives  the 
maintenance  requirements  of  pigs  that  have  been  previously  kept 
on  a  low  nutritive  plane  as  follows : 

Dietrich  Maintenance  Standard  for  Pigs,  Per  Head,  100  Pounds  Live  Weight. 

Digestible  crude  protein         Digestible  carbohydrates  Digestible  fat 

0.10  pound  0.25  to  0.40  pound  0.03  pound 

The  energy  requirements  of  the  ration  are  about  1.12  therms 
(p.  35 ).18 

The  rations  given  in  the  following  table  have  been  calculated 
according  to  the  rather  elaborate  system  of  feeding  pigs  recom- 
mended by  Dietrich: 

An  Approximate  Ration  for  Pigs  Intended  for  Breeding  Purposes 


Age  of  pigs  in  months 

Feeds 

2      . 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

Pounds  of  feed  per  100  pounds  live  weight  per  day 

Corn  

2.7 

2.8 

2.9 

2.9 

3.0 

3.3 

29 

Soybeans  (seed). 
Skim  milk  

.4 
6.0 

.5 
6.0 

.4 
6.0 

.4 
6.0 

.4 
6.0 

.4 

.7 

Water  

7.1 

6.4 

5.7 

5.1 

4.4 

9.2 

8.5 

In  the  place  of  corn  may  be  substituted  rye,  barley,  wheat,  rice, 
etc.,  and  in  the  place  of  soybeans,  linseed  meal  or  peas,  but  in 
the  latter  case  the  quantity  fed  must  be  increased,  as  peas  contain 
less  protein  than  the  other  feeds.  "  This  would  also  increase  the 
carbohydrate,  hence  the  corn  would  have  to  be  correspondingly  de- 
creased. Or  these  may  be  left  out  and  more  skim  milk  added. 
Some  of  the  protein  may  also  be  supplied  in  the  form  of  clover  or 
alfalfa.  If  skim  milk  is  not  available,  more  of  some  other  nitrog- 
enous feeds  may  be  supplied,  and  also  more  water,  as  milk  is  85 
to  90  per  cent  water.  If  tankage  containing  60  per  cent  protein  is 
used  in  place  of  soybean  meal,  much  less  will  suffice,  as  tankage  is 
richer  in  protein. 

"The  above  is  intended  for  dry  lot  feeding  (Fig.  81).  If  pigs 
are  on  pasture,  these  quantities  should  be  somewhat  reduced.  If 
the  above  ration  is  used  in  a  dry  lot,  a  little  bran  or  shorts  used 

"Illinois  Bulletin  163;    Circulars  126,   133,  and  153. 


FEEDING  SWINE 


309 


in  place  of  part  of  the  corn  so  as  to  give  the  ration  more  bulk  will 
improve  it.  A  greater  variety  of  feeds  will  probably  also  make  the 
ration  better."  Swine  may  grind  their  own  grain,  as  shown  in 
figure  82. 

Fattening  Swine. — In  the  corn  belt  States,  which  supply  a 
large  proportion  of  the  hogs  fattened  for  market,  the  common 


FIG.  81. — A  cement  feeding  floor  provided  with  sanitary  substantial  troughs  is  an  essential 
to  a  well-equipped  piggery.     (Wisconsin  Station.) 

practice  is  to  keep  the  hogs  with  fattening  steers  until  three  to 
four  weeks  before  the  end  of  the  fattening  period,  when  they  are 
penned  and  finished  for  market.  As  previously  shown,  the  number 
of  hogs  put  with  the  steers  will  vary  with  the  form  in  which  corn 


Fia.  82.— The 


'hog  motor,"  a  device  for  making  pigs  grind  the  corn  they  eat. 
Company,  Minneapolis.) 


(Hog  Motor 


is  fed  to  the  latter;  the  extra  grain  which  the  hogs  receive  is 
likewise  determined  by  this  factor,  and  the  amount  of  undigested 
feed  in  the  droppings  of  the  steers  (p.  273).  If  the  steers  are  fed 
snapped  ear  corn  or  whole  shelled  corn,  much  more  passes  through 
undigested  and  becomes  available  to  the  hogs  in  the  droppings  than 
if  soaked  corn,  ground  corn,  or  corn  and  cob  meal  is  fed.  If  the 


310  PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

steers  are  fed  protein  feeds  in  addition  to  corn,  they  are  able  to  digest 
the  starchy  components  of  the  ration  better  than  in  case  of  wide 
nutritive  ratios,  and  hogs,  in  that  case,  can  glean  less  feed  from  the 
droppings. 

Fattening  Rations. — When  the  ration  of  the  steers  consists  of 
whole  corn,  the  hogs  are  usually  fed  one-fourth  to  one-third  pound  of 
tankage  per  head  daily ;  this  will  be  all  they  need  in  addition  to  the 
corn  in  the  droppings  for  about  four  to  five  weeks,  until  they  do 
not  apparently  gain  further  in  weight.  They  are  then  taken  out 
and  finished  on  a  ration  of  corn  and  tankage,  cotton-seed  meal, 

<      mm^mmmmmmmmm  -  — i 


FIG.  83. — Portable  hog-houses  with  low,  flat  roofs;  if  used  for  housing  swine  in  hot 
weather,  they  should  be  provided  with  a  shade  at  the  rear  under  which  the  pigs  can  lie  in 
comfort.  This  shade  is  five  feet  wide,  made  of  inch  stuff  placed  upon  removable  supports 
which  rest  upon  cleats  nailed  to  the  ends  of  the  house.  (Wisconsin  Station.) 

peas,  shorts,  or  gluten  feed,  in  the  proportion  of  seven  parts  of  corn 
to  one  of  tankage,  or  of  three  parts  of  corn  to  two  parts  of  either  of 
the  other  feeds.  The  fattening  period  ordinarily  lasts  about  sixty 
days,  at  the  end  of  which  time  the  hogs  will  generally  weigh  about 
200  pounds. 

In  other  sections  of  the  country  hogs  are  either  fattened  on  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  pasture  and  fed  grain  in  addition,  or  are  fed  in 
a  dry  lot  until  ready  for  the  market.  The  latter  method  is  less 
satisfactory  for  summer  and  fall  feeding  than  pasturage,  as  it 
increases  the  cost  of  production,  the  hogs  are  less  thrifty,  and  a 
larger  amount  of  grain  is  required  per  100  pounds  gain.  It  is  essen- 
tial to  furnish  some  green  feed,  as  clover,  alfalfa,  and  corn.  The 


FEEDING  SWINE 


311 


312  PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

kind  of  grain  fed  with  it  will  vary  according  to  the  character  of  the 
available  green  feed;  with  leguminous  crops  the  grain  may  consist 
of  corn  or  barley,  preferably  soaked  or  ground  with  a  little  tankage. 
If  green  corn,  rape,  or  sorghum  forage  is  fed,  more  nitrogenous 
feed  mixtures  must  be  supplied ;  skim  milk  and  tankage  are  the  best 
supplementary  feeds  with  the  cereals  and  mill  feeds.  Cotton-seed 
meal  is  fed  considerably  in  the  South  to  fattening  hogs  with  corn 
or  other  grain,  but  fatal  results  often  follow  on  account  of  the 
poisonous  principles  found  therein  (p.  200).  If  the  animals  are  to 
be  fed  not  more  than  twenty-one  days  in  the  finishing  period  after 
pasturage  or  running  with  steers,  one-third  of  the  total  grain  ration 
may  be  made  up  of  cotton-seed  meal;  if  it  is  likely  to  extend 
beyond  twenty-one  days,  the  proportion  of  cotton-seed  meal  must 
be  reduced  to  one-fifth  or  one-sixth  of  the  whole  ration  and  the  finish- 
ing period  be  limited  to  five  weeks  in  all.19 


FIG.  85. — The  self-feeder  saves  labor  in  feeding  pigs  and  other  farm  animals.  The 
large  self-feeder  is  used  for  different  grain  feeds,  and  the  small  one  for  feeding  charcoal, 
ashes,  and  lime. 

The  Use  of  Self-feeder.— The  self-feeder  (Figs.  85  and  86) 
has  been  used  to  a  limited  extent  in  feeding  fattening  swine,  for 
feeding  grain  or  salt,  charcoal,  etc.,  and  has  given  similar  results, 
as  previously  stated,  in  the  case  of  steers  and  sheep.20  A  patented 
"  hog  motor  grinder,"  by  which  the  pigs  grind  their  own  corn  as 
wanted,  is  a  special  form  of  self-feeder.  In  two  trials  at  the  Mary- 
land station  21  it  produced  good  results,  but  not  quite  as  economical 
gains  as  hopper  feeding. 

19  Farmers'  Bulletin  411. 

30  Maryland  Bulletin  150;  Wisconsin  Agriculturist,  Sept.  17,  1914* 

*  Bulletin  150 ;  Day,  "Productive  Swine  Husbandry,"  p.  208, 


FEEDING  SWINE 


313 


According  to  the  forage  conditions  in  different  parts  of  the 
country,  great  variations  in  the  methods  of  feeding  fattening  hogs, 
as  well  as  swine  in  general,  are  possible.  The  preceding  sugges- 
tions will,  however,  indicate  in  general  the  plan  of  feeding  that 
will  be  likely  to  give  best  results  in  special  cases. 

Summer  vs.  Winter  Feeding. — By  far  the  greater  proportion 
of  the  pigs  in  this  country  are  fitted  for  the  market  in  the  summer 
and  early  fall,  and  depend  on  the  summer  pasturage,  supplemented 
by  grain,  for  cheap  and  rapid  gains.  Hogs  fattened  during  winter, 
as  a  rule,  require  somewhat  more  feed  for  making  a  certain  gain 
in  weight  than  during  the  summer,  at  least  in  the  North.  No 
exact  information  in  regard  to  this  point  is  available  for  this  country, 
but  records  obtained  in  Danish  pig-feeding  trials  with  about  2500 
summer-  and  winter-fed  pigs  have  a  direct  bearing  on  this  question. 
The  following  summary  table  22  shows  the  amount  of  feed  eaten, 
reduced  to  a  grain  equivalent  according  to  the  feed-unit  system,  and 
the  feed  requirements  per  100  pounds  gain  in  weight  and  for  each 
of  three  groups  of  pigs — 35  to  75  pounds,  75  to  115  pounds,  and  115 
to  155  pounds — with  averages : 

Feed  Required  to  Fatten  Danish  Pigs  in  Winter  and  in  Summer 


Weight 

Grain  equivalent 
per  day  per  head, 
pounds 

Grain  equivalent 
for  100  pounds  gain, 
pounds 

Winter 

Summer 

Winter 

Summer 

35  to    75  pounds  

2.66 
3.96 
5.26 

3.96 

2.65 
3.92 
5.25 

3.94 

371 
446 
516 

444 

346 
397 
457 

400 

75  to  115  pounds  

115  to  155  pounds 

Average 

While  the  pigs  ate  practically  the  same  amounts  of  feed  in 
summer  and  winter,  it  required  400  pounds  to  make  100  pounds  of 
gain  in  summer,  against  444  pounds  in  winter,  an  increase  of  11  per 
cent.  The  larger  feed  requirements  in  winter  are  explained  by  the 
fact  that  more  body  heat  is  lost  by  radiation  on  account  of  the  lower 
air  temperature.  The  same  result  was  obtained  in  comparing  the 
feed  required  by  pigs  weighing  about  70  pounds  each,  kept  in  a  well-- 
built piggery  and  in  individual  hog-houses  ( Fig.  83  )•,  at  the  Ottawa 
station.23  The  trial  was  conducted  during  60  days  in  winter  time. 

22  Copenhagen  Station  Report  3Q,  1895;  Exp.  Sta.  Record  7,  p.  246, 
83  Report,  1904, 


314  PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

In  the  open  winter  quarters  the  pigs  ate  526  pounds  grain  per  100 
pounds  gain,  against  366  pounds  for  those  in  the  piggery,  a  differ- 
ence of  44  per  cent  in  favor  of  the  latter  quarters.  Brood  sows  in 
similar  colony  houses  required  only  25  per  cent  more,  a  figure  which 
corresponds  closely  to  that  obtained  in  trials  at  the  Kansas  Agri- 
cultural College24  (Fig.  84). 

Feeding  for  Bacon  Production. — Bacon  hogs  are  kept  only 
to  a  relatively  small  extent  in  the  United  States,  but  the  raising 
of  such  hogs  and  the  production  of  a  high  quality  of  bacon  are 
important  special  industries  in  Canada  and  northern  Europe,  es- 
pecially in  Ireland  and  Denmark.  The  bacon  found  on  the  market 


FIG.  86. — A  convenient  self-feeder  for  supplying  charcoal  and  mineral  matter  to  pigs  on 
pasture.      (Breeders'  Gazette.) 

in  this  country  is  largely  the  sides  of  lard  hogs  and  has  an  inferior 
grade  of  meat.  The  special  breeds  of  bacon  hogs  are  best  adapted 
to  the  production  of  good  bacon,  having  a  larger  body  and  legs,  less 
thickness  and  depth  of  body,  and  being  lighter  in  shoulder,  neck 
and  jowl.  There  is  less  accumulation  of  fat  and  more  lean  and  firm 
meat  than  on  the  lard  hog.  While  the  latter  hog  is  essentially  a 
product  of  corn,  the  bacon  hog  is  produced  where  dairy  products, 
small  grains,  and  leguminous  feeds  are  readily  available;  hence  we 
find  some  hogs  of  this  type  in  eastern  and  northern  States  where 
favorable  feeding  conditions  exist  for  bacon  production,  and  there 
is  apparently  an  increasing  home  demand  for  all  bacon  that  is 
produced  in  this  country.  Bacon  hogs  are  marketed  at  about  200 

24  Report  Prof.  Agr.,  1883. 


FEEDING  SWINE  315 

pounds  live  weight ;  they  should  be  only  moderately  fat,  and  a  firm 
quality  of  fat  is  essential  in  a  first-grade  article.  Soft  bacon  is  a 
serious  defect  and  is  produced  by  a  variety  of  causes.  These  have 
been  summarized  as  follows  by  Day : 25 

"  1.  Lack  of  Maturity. — Generally  speaking,  the  more  immature  a  hog 
is,  the  greater  the  tendency  to  be  soft.  Almost  invariably  the  largest  per- 
centage of  softness  occurs  among  the  light  sides  of  bacon. 

"  2.  Lack  of  Finish. — Thin  hogs  have  a  marked  tendency  to  produce  soft 
bacon.  Marketing  hogs  before  they  are  finished  is,  no  doubt,  responsible  for 
a  great  deal  of  softness. 

"  3.  Unthriftiness  in  hogs,  no  matter  what  the  cause  may  be,  almost  in- 
variably produces  soft  bacon. 

"  4.  Lack  of  exercise  has  a  tendency  to  produce  softness,  but  this  ten- 
dency can  be  largely  overcome  by  judicious  feeding. 

"  5.  Exclusive  meal  feeding  is,  perhaps,  one  of  the  most  common  causes 
of  softness,  especially  when  hogs  are  not  given  exercise.  Some  kinds  of 
meal  are  more  injurious  than  others,  but  wherever  exclusive  meal  feeding 
is  practised  and  the  exercise  is  limited,  more  or  less  softness  is  always  sure 
to  result. 

"  0.  Corn. — Of  the  grains  in  common  use,  corn  has  the  greatest  tendency 
to  produce  softness.  Its  injurious  tendency  can  be  modified  by  mixing  it 
largely  with  other  meal  or  by  feeding  skim  milk,  green  feed,  and  roots,  but 
its  tendency  to  produce  softness  is  so  strong  that  it  must  be  regarded  as  an 
undesirable  food  for  bacon  hogs.  .  .  . 

"  7.  Beans  seem  to  have  more  marked  effect  than  corn  in  producing  soft- 
ness, and  should  not  be  used  for  finishing  bacon  hogs.'' 

Barley  and  skim  milk  make  the  best  combination  for  bacon  pro- 
duction, and  may  be  fed  in  the  ratio  of  1  to  3  or  1  to  5.  These  feeds 
will  produce  large  gains  and  a  good  quality  of  meat ;  other  valuable 
feeds  are  peas,  linseed  meal,  fine-ground  oats  and  tankage.  Clover, 
alfalfa,  or  rape  will  furnish  large  and  satisfactory  returns  in  summer 
with  barley,  shorts,  and  a  small  amount  of  skim  milk.  Winter  feed- 
ing is  also  practised  where  roots  are  available — either  mangels  or 
sugar  beets ;  they  should  be  supplemented  by  skim  milk  and  barley 
or  wheat,  with  some  linseed  meal  or  tankage. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How  do  pigs  rank  in  relation  to  other  farm  animals  as  producers  of 

human  food? 

2.  Give  the  average  birth  weight  of  pigs. 

3.  State  the  average  amount  of  feed  eaten  daily  by  pigs  of  different  weights 

and  the  feed  per  100  pounds  gain  for  pigs  of  different  live  weights. 

4.  What,  if  any,  is  the  advantage  of  grinding,  cooking  and  soaking  feed  for 

swine  ? 

5.  Describe  the  use  of  Indian  corn  in  swine  feeding. 
0.  How  can  swine  be  fed  for  fat  and  for  lean? 

7.  Discuss  briefly  the  value  of  dairy  products  and  of  pasture  for  swine 
feeding. 

25 "  Productive  Swine  Husbandry,"  p.  134. 


316  PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

8.  Give  briefly  the  method  of  feeding  fattening  swine  in  different  parts  of 
the  country. 

9.  What  is  the  difference  in  feed  requirements  per  100  pounds  gain  of  swine 

in  summer  and  in  winter  ? 

10.  Give    Dietrich's    maintenance    requirement    of    digestible    protein    and 
energy  value   for   breeding  pigs,   and   outline   the  method   of   feeding 
recommended  by  him. 

11.  Describe  the  method  of  feeding  swine  for  bacon  production. 

12.  What  feeds  are  especially  adapted  for  this  purpose  ? 

Literature  on  Swine. — Day,  "  Productive  Swine  Husbandry,"  Phila- 
delphia, 1913.  Lovejoy,  "  Forty  Years'  Experience  as  a  Practical  Hog  Man," 
Springfield,  111.,  1914.  Dietrich,  "  Swine,"  Chicago,  1910.  Coburn,  "  Swine 
Husbandry,"  New  York,  1888.  Dawson,  "The  Hog  Book,"  Chicago,  1911. 
Spencer,  "  Pigs,  Breeds  and  Management,"  London,  1902.  Tracy,  "  Hog 
Raising  in  the  South,"  U.  S.  Farmers'  Bulletin  100,  1899.  Rommel,  "Pig 
Management,"  Farmers'  Bulletin  205,  1908.  Gray,  "  Feeding  Hogs  in  the 
South,"  Farmers'  Bulletin  411,  1910.  Warren,  "Hog  Houses,"  Farmers' 
Bulletin  438,  1911.  Hunter,  "Pastures  and  Grain  Crops  for  Hogs  in  the 
Pacific  Northwest,"  Farmers'  Bulletin  68. 

Experiment  Station  Publications  on  Swine  Feeding. — Ala.,  b.  82,  93, 
122,  143;  Ark.,  b.  41,  54,  84;  Col.,  b.  47,  74,  146,  165,  188;  Conn.  (Storrs), 
b.  31,  39 ;  Fla.,  b.  113 ;  Ga.,  b.  87 ;  Idaho,  b.  74 ;  111.,  b.  16,  97,  163 ;  c.  126,  133, 
153;  Ind.,  b.  79-82,  90,  108,  126,  158;  Iowa,  b.  2,  48,  91,  106,  113,  143,  136, 
ext.  b.  15;  Kan.,  b.  53,  61,  95,  124,  136,  192;  Ky.,  b.  101 ;  Mass.,  r.  '84,  '97,  '99; 
Me.,  r.  89;  Md.,  b.  141,  150;  Mich.,  b.  233,  243;  Minn.,  b.  104;  Miss.,  r. 
'05;  Mo.,  b.  14,  29,  67,  79,  110;  Col.,  b.  1;  c.  55;  Mont.,  b.  27,  57,  89;  Neb., 

b.  94,  99,  107,  121,  123,  124;  press  b.  20;  N.  H.,  b.  113;  N.  M.,  b.  90;  N.  C., 

c.  5;  N.  Y.  (Cornell),  b.  89,  199,  220;  Ohio,  b.  209,  268;  r.  '84;  c.  73;  Okla., 
r.  '99-'00,  p.  48;  Ore.,  c.  b.  18,  54,  80,  89,  102;  Pa.,  b.  95;  R.  I.,  b.  152; 
S.  Dak.,  b.  38,  52,  55,  63,  83,  90,  105,  136;  Utah,  b.  34,  70,  101,  94,  r.  '91;  Vt., 
r.  '91;  Va.,  b.  167,  176;  Wash.,  pop.  b.  63;  W.  Va.,  b.  59;  Wis.,  b.  104,  144; 
r.  '85,  '89,  '90,  '91,  '94,  '95,  '02,  '05,  '06;  Wyo.,  b.  74,  96;  Ont.,  r.  '96,  '97, 
'99,  '01,  '05;  Ottawa,  b.  33,  51,  57;  r.  '91,  '94,  '01,  '02,  '04,  '08. 


CHAPTER  XXVI 
FEEDING  SHEEP  AND  GOATS 

Feeding  Standards  for  Sheep. — The  three  following  tables  give 
the  established  feeding  standards  for  sheep  of  different  types  and 
ages: 

The  Wolff-Lehmann  Standards  for  Sheep,  per  1000  Pounds  Live  Weight  Daily 


- 

Age, 
months 

Live 
weight, 
pounds 

Dry 

matter, 
pounds 

Digestible 

N.  R. 

Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 
and  fat* 

1.  Growing  sheep: 

4-6 

60 

25 

3.4 

17.0 

1:5.0 

6-8 

75 

25 

2.8 

15.2 

1:5.4 

Wool  breeds  • 

8-11 

85 

23 

2.1 

12.6 

1:6.0 

11-15 

90 

22 

1.8 

12.1 

1:7.0 

15-20 

100 

22 

1.5 

11.5 

1:7.7 

4-6 

65 

26 

4.4 

17.5 

1:4.0 

6-8 

85 

26 

3.5 

16.6 

1:4.8 

Mutton  breeds 

8-11 

100 

24 

3.0 

15.4 

1:5.2 

11-15 

120 

23 

2.2 

13.7 

1:6.3 

15-20 

150 

22 

2.0 

12.9 

1:6.5 

2.  Sheep,  coarse  wool  

20 

1.2 

11.0 

1:9.1 

Sheep,  fine  wool  

23 

1.5 

12.7 

1:8.5 

3.  Ewes,  suckling  lambs  

25 

2.9 

16.1 

1:5.6 

4.  Fattening  sheep,  first  period  .  . 
Fattening  sheep,  second  perioc 

['.'.'.'/.". 

30 

28 

3.0t 
3.5f 

16.1 
15.9 

1:5.4 
1:4.5 

*  Given  separately  by  Wolff-Lehmann.    t  Doubtless  too  high,  making  N.  R.  too  narrow. 
The  Armsby  Standards  for  Sheep,  Maintenance  Requirements,  per  Day  and  Head 


Live 
weight, 
pounds 

Digestible 
protein, 
pounds 

Energy 
value, 
therms 

Live 
weight, 
pounds 

Digestible 
protein, 
pounds 

Energy 
value, 
therms 

20 

.23 

.30 

100 

.10 

1.00 

40 

.05 

.54 

120 

.11 

1.13 

60 

.07 

.71 

140 

.13 

1.25 

80 

.09 

.87 

117 


318 


PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


Growing  Sheep,  Estimated  Requirements  (Including  Maintenance 
Requirements)  per  Head  Daily 


Age, 
months 

Weight, 
pounds 

Digestible 
protein, 
pounds 

Energy 
value, 
therms 

6 

70 

0.30 

1.30 

9 

90 

.25 

1.40 

12 

110 

.23 

1.40 

15 

130 

.23 

1.50 

18 

145 

.22 

1.60 

Types  of  Sheep. — Sheep  are  kept  for  two  more  or  less  distinct 
purposes :  For  production  of  wool  and  for  meat  production.  Accord- 
ing to  the  particular  breed  kept,  emphasis  is  laid  on  one  or  the  other 
of  these  purposes.  We  have  representatives  of  both  kinds  of  sheep 
in  this  country  (Figs.  87,  88,  and  89)  :  The  range  sheep,  which  are 
primarily  wool  producers,  and  the  general  farm  sheep,  "  which 
should  be  considered,  first  of  all,  a  producer  of  mutton  and  handled 
so  that  it  will  yield  the  chief  source  of  income  through  its  mutton 
lambs." 

The  range  areas  devoted  to  sheep  raising,  like  those  used  for 
cattle  raising,  are  gradually  diminishing  with  the  settlement  of 
western  lands  by  the  farmer,  but  they  still  furnish  our  main  supply 
of  sheep.  The  numbers  of  sheep  on  farms  or  ranges  in  this  country 
have  diminished  with  each  decade  from  1880  to  1910,  while  our 
population  increased  over  80  per  cent  during  the  same  period,  from 
50,000,000  people  in  1880  to  92,000,000  in  1910.  There  has  also 
been  a  gradual  decrease  in  sheep  kept  on  farms  in  the  eastern  and 
northern  States.  Sheep  raising  in  these  States  and  on  western 
farms,  on  land  adapted  to  the  production  of  early  lambs  and  fatten- 
ing of  mature  sheep,  seems  likely,  however,  to  be  of  increasing  im- 
portance in  the  future,  as  the  demand  for  good  mutton  increases 
and  prices  advance,  as  they  are  bound  to  do,  with  our  rapidly- 
increasing  population  and  the  decreasing  ratio  of  farm  animals  to 
population.  The  primary  conditions  for  success  with  sheep,  as  with 
other  farm  animals,  lie,  first,  in  keeping  animals  that  are  adapted  for 
the  purpose  in  view,  preferably  pure-breds,  or  sired  by  a  pure-bred 
ram;  and,  second,  the  feeding  and  caring  for  these  so  as  to  obtain 
the  best  results  possible  under  the  special  conditions  surrounding 
each  flock. 

Sheep  are  primarily  grazing  animals ;  they  serve  a  special  purpose 
on  the  farm  by  being  able  to  utilize  feed  that  is  not  adapted  to,  or 
cannot  be  used  by,  other  classes  of  farm  animals;  stubble  fields, 
volunteer  growth,  pasturage  and,  especially,  aftermath  that  is  too 


FEEDING  SHEEP  AND  GOATS 


319 


320 


PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


scant  to  make  it  worth  while  to  pasture  cattle  or  horses  thereon, 
will  often  furnish  abundant  feed  for  sheep.  Their  ability  to  keep 
weeds  in  check  on  farm  lands  is  also  important.  According  to 
Craig,1  cattle  and  horses  eat  about  50  per  cent  of  the  numerous  plants 
regarded  as  weeds,  while  the  proportion  eaten  by  sheep  is  over  90 
per  cent.  A  single  sheep  does  not  destroy  a  whole  plant  at  one  time, 


FIG.  88. — A  fine  bunch  of  yearling  rams.      (Breeders'  Gazette.) 


RHffiramHBHHHBHRBHIBBSHB 

FIG.  89. — A  good  type  of  mutton  sheep.      (Pacific  Rural  Press.) 

but,  moving  as  they  graze,  each  sheep  nibbles  a  few  leaves  in  passing, 
and  when  the  flock  has  passed  the  plant  is  defoliated.  Sheep  are, 
therefore,  economical  feeders  if  need  be,  but  they  also  respond 
better  than  the  larger  farm  animals  to  intensive  feeding,  and  will 
give  quicker  returns  for  the  investment  for  stock  and  equipment 
than  the  larger  ones.  A  daily  gain  in  weight  of  a  quarter  of  a 
pound  to  one-half  pound  is  not  excessive  for  sheep  weighing  100 
pounds,  while  a  1000  pound  steer  will  not  be  likely  to  gain  more  than 

1 "  Sheep  Feeding,"  p.  7. 


FEEDING  SHEEP  AND  GOATS 


321 


two  pounds  daily  on  approximately  the  same  feed  as  eaten  by  ten 
sheep.  Sheep  are  ruminants  and  consume  considerable  quantities 
of  rough  feed;  they,  therefore,  need  smaller  proportions  of  expen- 
sive grain  feed  than  do  swine.  For  these  and  other  reasons  the 
further  development  of  the  American  sheep  industry  is  a  matter 
of  great  economic  importance,,  especially  in  view  of  the  decreasing 
ratio  of  meat-producing  animals  to  our  population,  which  is  likely 
to  continue  with  the  rapid  extension  of  the  manufacturing  industries 
in  this  country. 

Wool  Production. — In  feeding  sheep,  whether  of  the  wool  or 
mutton  type,  a  growth  of  both  wool  sand  body  tissue  takes  place. 
If  only  sufficient  feed  is  given  to  maintain  the  sheep  at  an  even 
body  weight,  the  growth  of  wool  is  diminished,  but  does  not  stop 
entirely.  When  liberal  fattening  rations  are  fed,  on  the  other  hand, 
a  normal  growth  of  wool  results;  this  cannot  be  further  increased 
by  feeding  heavier  rations,  so  far  as  the  wool  fiber  is  concerned, 
but  the  weight  of  fleece  obtained  may  be  increased  on  account 
of  the  larger  percentage  of  wool  grease  found  therein.  Wool  is 
composed  chiefly  of  the  protein  substance  keratin,  containing  4  to 
5  per  cent  sulfur,  in  addition  to  the  usual  components  of  protein, 
carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen,  and  nitrogen  (p.  22).  Since  the  pro- 
duction of  wool  is  a  necessary  accompaniment  of  sheep  feeding, 
whether  it  is  the  main  object  sought  or  not,  it  follows  that  rations 
fed  to  sheep  should  contain  considerable  protein  and  have  relatively 
narrow  nutritive  ratios,  especially  in  the  case  of  growing  animals. 
We  find,  therefore,  that  the  feeding  standards  call  for  a  large 
amount  of  protein  for  growing  sheep  and  breeding  ewes. 

Fattening  Sheep. — Mature  fattening  sheep  do  not,  however,  re- 
quire more  protein  in  their  feed  than  the  same  class  of  steers,  since 
there  is  very  little  new  formation  of  tissue  in  the  case  of  these 
animals,  the  increase  during  the  fattening  period  being  made  up 
largely  of  fat.  This  is  shown  by  the  analyses  of  sheep  at  different 
stages  of  fattening  which  were  made  by  Lawes  and  Gilbert,  of 
Rothamsted  Experiment  Station,  about  the  middle  of  the  last  cen- 
tury. The  composition  of  the  increase  from  store  to  fattened  con- 
dition, and  from  fat  to  very  fat  condition,  is  given  below : 

Composition  of  Increase  of  Fattening  Sheep,  in  Per  Cent 


Dry 

substance 

Ash 

Protein 

Fat 

Increase  from  store  to  fat  condition  . 
Increase  from  fat  to  very  fat  condition 

78.0 
81.8 

2.12 
3.12 

7.16 
7.75 

68.8 
70.9 

21 


322 


PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


By  comparing  the  figures  given  in  the  table  with  the  correspond- 
ing data  for  fattening  mature  steers,  it  will  be  seen  that  sheep  build 
up  more  fat  and  less  protein  (lean  meat)  during  the  fattening 
process  than  do  steers,  and  the  increase  in  weight  consists  of  more 
dry  substance  than  in  case  of  these  animals  (p.  257). 

Results  obtained  by  Henneberg  and  Kern  with  three  mature 
wethers  slaughtered  at  different  stages  of  the  fattening  period 
illustrate  the  changes  that  occur  in  the  composition  of  the  carcass 
of  sheep  during  fattening.2  One  wether  was  slaughtered  and  the 
carcass  analyzed  at  the  beginning  of  the  trial,  when  in  a  lean  con- 
dition ;  another  after  70  days  of  fattening,  when  half  fat,  and  the 
third  one  at  the  end  of  203  days  of  fattening,  when  extra  fat.  The 
table  shows  the  contents  of  lean  meat  and  fat  in  the  case  of  three 
wethers : 

Effect  of  Fattening  on  the  Carcasses  of  Mature  Sheep 


Lean 
meat, 
pounds 

Fat, 
pounds 

Lean  wether.  .  . 

262 

11  9 

Half-fat  wether  .  .    . 

25.9 

33  2 

Extra  fat  wether  

26.7 

41.9 

We  note  that  there  was  no  material  change  in  the  content  of 
lean  meat  in  the  three  animals,  but  the  per  cent  of  fat  in  the  carcass 
increased  from  about  12  to  42  per  cent  during  the  fattening  process, 
assuming  that  the  three  wethers  had  a  similar  composition  at  the 
beginning  of  the  trials.  This  increase  in  the  per  cent  of  fat  was 
accompanied  by  a  decrease  in  the  water  content  of  the  carcass  during 
the  fattening,  as  has  been  previously  shown. 

Weight  of  Lambs  at  Birth. — Lambs  will  weigh  from  six  to  ten 
pounds  at  birth, .  according  to  the  size  of  the  ewes  and  the  breed. 
The  average  weight  of  single  lambs  of  several  breeds  reported  by 
Humphrey  and  Kleinheinz  from  records  obtained  with  the  Wis- 
consin station  flock3  was  9.5  pounds;  of  twins,  8.0  pounds;  and  of 
triplets,  6.8  pounds.  The  figures  for  the  main  breeds  were,  on  the 
average,  for  Montana  range  sheep,  Shropshire,  and  Southdowns  be- 
tween 7  and  8  pounds;  for  Oxford  and  Cheviots  between  8  and  9 
pounds,  and  for  Hampshire  and  Downs  between  9  and  10  pounds. 
Ram  lambs  average  about  one-half  pound  heavier  at  birth  than  ewe 
lambs. 


2  J.  f.  Landw.,  2G,  p.  549. 

3  Report  1907. 


FEEDING  SHEEP  AND  GOATS  323 

Feeding  Ewes. — Where  individual  attention  can  be  given  to 
the  breeding  ewes,  as  in  the  case  of  mutton  breeds,  it  is  desirable  to 
secure  as  many  twin  lambs  as  possible,  while  under  western  range 
conditions  one  lamb  to  each  ewe  has  been  found  to  give  the  best 
results.  If  the  ewes  are  in  a  vigorous,  well-nourished  condition 
when  mated,  they  are  more  sure  to  breed  and  will  give  birth  to 
more  twins  and  triplets  than  when  in  a  thin,  run-down  condition; 
hence  the  practice  of  "  flushing  "  ewes  has  become  common  among 
breeders  of  mutton  sheep;  i.e.,  these  are  fed  heavily  for  two  or 
three  weeks  prior  to  breeding  time  by  supplying  plenty  of  easily 
digestible  feed,  like  rape,  cabbage,  or  grain,  in  addition  to  pasturage 
or  dry  roughage.  Breeding  ewes  in  good  condition  do  not  need 
much  grain  during  the  winter ;  one-half  pound  of  a  mixture  of  oats 
and  wheat  bran  (3  to  1  by  weight)  per  head  daily  for  ev/es  weighing 
about  150  pounds  is  sufficient,  with  a  couple  of  pounds  of  good  dry 
roughage,  like  legume  hay,  oat  hay,  nice  fodder  corn,  etc.,  and  two 
to  three  pounds  of  succulent  feeds,  either  silage  or  roots.  Silage 
from  nearly-matured  corn,  containing  not  too  many  ears,  may  be 
fed  to  advantage  to  pregnant  ewes,  but  moldy,  spoiled,  or  very  acid 
silage  must  not  be  fed,  nor  frozen  roots  or  silage.  More  silage  may 
be  fed  after  lambing,  when  feeds  favoring  the  milk  secretion  are 
especially  valuable.  To  avoid  milk  fever,  but  little  grain  is  fed 
for  a  few  days  after  lambing.  After  this  period,  when  the  danger  of 
milk  fever  is  passed,  the  ewes  may  be  gradually  brought  over  to 
a  full  grain  allowance.  Dry  roughage  and  succulent  feeds  may  be 
fed  safely  both  before  and  after  lambing. 

Ewes'  milk  contains,  on  the  average,  about  7  per  cent  of  fat,  but 
great  variations  occur  in  the  composition  of  milk,  both  in  case  of 
ewes  of  different  breeds  and  of  ewes  of  the  same  breed.  Konig  gives 
2.16  and  12.78  per  cent  as  the  extremes  of  the  per  cent  of  fat  in  ewes' 
milk  according  to  European  analyses.  At  the  Wisconsin  station  the 
milk  from  14  ewes  of  six  different  breeds  contained  12.2  per  cent 
solids  and  7.1  per  cent  fat  on  the  average;  the  average  daily  milk 
yield  from  these  ewes  was  2.8  pounds.4 

Feeding  the  Ram. — The  ram  must  be  kept  in  a  vigorous,  thrifty 
condition  in  order  to  give  good  service.  No  grain  is  necessary  while 
on  pasture,  except  a  little  for  about  a  month  prior  to  the  breeding 
season.  Fattening  feeds  should  be  avoided ;  a  common  grain  mixture 
consisting  of  oats  and  bran  (2  to  1  by  weight)  can  be  fed  in  connec- 
tion with  a  good  quality  of  hay.  Clean,  pure  water  and  salt  must  be 
supplied  as  in  the  case  of  all  sheep. 

4  Report  1904. 


324  PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

Feeding  Lambs. — The  dam's  milk  generally  forms  the  sole 
feed  of  lambs  during  the  first  two  or  three  weeks  of  their  lives ;  about 
this  time  they  begin  to  nibble  a  little  grain  or  hay,  and  should  have 
access  to  both  thereafter.  A  lamb  creep  should  be  provided  where  the 
ewes  cannot  eat  the  feed  intended  for  the  lambs ;  the  creep  or  pen 
may  be  built  at  one  side  or  corner  of  the  barn  with  two  boards,  1  x 
6  inches,  of  the  desired  length,  to  which  are  nailed  vertical 'strips, 
1x4  inches  wide  and  3  feet  long.  The  slats  are  placed  far  enough 
apart  to  let  the  lambs  slip  through.  A  low,  flatbottom  trough  is 
placed  within  the  space  set  apart  for  the  lambs  on  which  the  grain 
is  fed,  like  ground  oats,  bran,  cracked  corn,  a  little  linseed  meal,  etc.5 
Pure  water  should  be  supplied  regularly.  A  creep  should  also  be 
provided  for  the  lambs  as  the  ewes  and  lambs  are  let  on  to  the 
pasture  in  the  spring,  where  they  may  find  their  grain  feed.  This,  in 
addition  to  the  dam's  milk  and  pasture,  will  enable  them  to  make 
a  rapid  and  healthy  growth.  The  ewes  will  not,  however,  need  any 
grain  when  on  good  pasture.  In  experiments  at  the  Wisconsin 
station  6  it  was  found  that  lambs  fed  grain  up  to  ten  months  old 
reached  a  given  weight  four  to  seven  weeks  sooner  than  when  no- 
grain  was  fed  before  weaning  time,  and  the  lambs  were  ready  for 
the  market  at  any  time  during  this  period,  so  that  advantage  might 
be  taken  of  favorable  market  conditions.  In  experiments  with  dif- 
ferent grain  feeds  for  unweaned  Shropshire  lambs  for  periods 
averaging  ten  weeks  0.3  to  0.4  pound  of  grain  was  eaten  daily, 
with  resulting  average  gains  of  about  one-half  pound  per  head 
daily.  The  following  amounts  of  different  grain  feeds  were  re- 
quired per  100  pounds  of  gain  in  body  weight:  Wheat  bran,  71 
pounds;  corn  meal  (4  trials),  74  pounds;  whole  oats,  78  pounds; 
and  cracked  peas,  81  pounds.  Unweaned  lambs  that  go  into  the 
breeding  flock  should  receive  feeds  like  oats  and  peas,  wheat  or  bran, 
while  corn  is  preferable  for  lambs  intended  for  the  butcher,  as  it 
tends  to  produce  a  fat  carcass. 

Stomach  worms  are  a  common  sheep  disease  east  of  the  Mississippi, 
especially  in  lambs,  and  are  a  serious  drawback  to  American  sheep  raising. 
The  eggs  of  the  worms  are  distributed  over  the  pasture  in  the  droppings  of 
the  sheep,  where  they  soon  hatch  and  are  taken  into  the  system  of  the  sheep 
while  grazing.  Old  infested  pastures,  especially  blue-grass,  are  tp  be  avoided 
in  feeding  sheep,  and  these  are  changed  to  clean,  fresh  pasture  every  two  or 
three  weeks,  if  possible,  during  the  summer  months.  Rape  pasture  and  other 
annual  crops  will  prove  of  great  value  where  the  permanent  pastures  have 
become  infested  with  worms.  Where  sheep  are  suffering  from  stomach 
worms,  either  of  the  following  remedies  may  be  resorted  to:  Gasoline, 

5  Kleinheinz,  "  Sheep  Management,"  p.  65. 

6  Reports  1896  and  1903. 


FEEDING  SHEEP  AND  GOATS 


325 


turpentine,  or  benzine.  The  dose  for  lambs  is  5  ounces  of  cows'  milk,  1 
tablespoonful  each  of  gasoline  and  raw  linseed  oil,  well  mixed  and  given  in  a 
drenching  bottle;  for  older  sheep,  iy2  tablespoonfuls  gasoline  are  given  in 
the  mixture. 

The  general  rules  in  regard  to  feeding  sheep  are  similar  to  those 
for  feeding  other  classes  of  farm  animals.  Regularity  of  feeding 
is  all-important,  as  are  cleanliness,  gentle  treatment,  patience,  and 
exercise  of  good  judgment  on  the  part  of  the  feeder. 

Feeding  Fattening  Sheep. — The  production  of  fat  mutton 
sheep  is  of  increasing  importance  in  this  country,  and  the  industry 
is  capable  of  still  further  development,  as  the  quality  of  the  mutton 
is  improved  by  the  feeding  of  special  mutton  sheep,  and  more  people 
learn  to  appreciate  tender,  juicy  mutton.  As  with  other  farm  ani- 
mals, the  largest  and  quickest  returns  are  made  by  fattening  young 
lambs.  The  influence  of  age  and  the  results  obtained  in  fattening 
sheep  are  illustrated  by  feeding  trials  with  range  sheep  conducted 
at  the  Montana  station.7  Four  lots  of  lambs,  one-  and  two-year-old 
wethers  and  aged  ewes,  about  55  in  each  lot,  were  fed  on  rations 
consisting  of  clover  hay  and  whole  barley  for  a  period  of  88  days. 
The  main  results  obtained  are  shown  in  the  following  table : 

Fattening  Range  Sheep  of  Different  Ages 


Lambs 

Yearling 

Two-year- 
old 

Aged 

wethers 

Average  weight  at  beginning,  pounds.  .  .    . 
Average  daily  gain,  pounds  :  

63 
.27 

95 
.27 

116 

.28 

92 

.18 

Average  ration:    Clover  hay,  pounds.  .  .    . 

2.1 

.        3.8 

4.1 

2.3 

Barley,  pounds  

.68 

.68 

.68 

.68 

Feed  for  100  pounds  gain:  Clover  hay  .  .     . 

763 

1413 

1469 

1320 

Barley  

253 

256 

248 

387 

Digestible  feed  per  pound  increase  
Per  cent  dressed  weight 

10.2 
54  2 

16.6 
52  9 

17.1 
53  6 

17.5 
50  6 

The  lambs  made  the  most  rapid  and  economical  gains  of  the 
four  lots.  The  amount  of  feed  required  for  maintenance  and  in- 
crease in  weight  was  smaller  and  the  average  percentage  dressed 
weight  was  higher  for  this  lot  than  for  the  older  sheep. 

Clean,  fresh  drinking  water  should  always  be  provided.  The 
amount  which  sheep  will  take  will  vary  with  the  character  of  the 
rations  fed  and  the  weather,  from  less  than  one  quart  per  head  when 
on  succulent  feed  to  five  quarts  or  more  when  on  dry  feed  only. 
Sheep  fed  dry  roughage  and  concentrates  crave  salt,  and  even  when 
on  pasture  it  should  be  supplied  regularly  in  order  that  they  may 


Bulletin  35 ;  also  Bulletins  47  and  59. 


326 


PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


do  well.  Salt  furnishes  the  chlorin  required  for  the  hydrochloric 
acid  of  the  gastric  juice,  and  has  also  other  important  functions  in 
the  digestion  of  food  (p.  24). 

Hot-house  Lambs. — The  most  extreme  method  of  fattening 
sheep  is  that  of  producing  so-called  hot-house  lambs  (Fig.  90). 
The  term  "  hot-house  "  applies  to  lambs  born  in  the  late  fall  or  early 
winter,  which  are  fattened  during  the  winter  months  and  marketed 
in  the  early  spring.  The  quarters  in  which  the  lambs  are  fed  are 
not  artificially  heated,  the  name  having  reference  to  the  fact  that 
the  lambs  are  produced  under  artificial  conditions  for  a  market 
willing  to  pay  a  very  high  price  for  a  fancy  article,  in  a  similar  way 


FIG.  90. — Grade  Dorset  lambs  from  Merino  ewes  make  excellent  hot-house  lambs.    (Peterson.) 

as  in  the  case  of  ordinary  hot-house  products.  The  lambs  must 
be  in  fat  condition  to  sell  as  hot-house  lambs.  Dorsets  or  Dorset 
grades  are  best  suited  for  lamb  production,  as  the  ewes  will  breed 
earlier  than  the  usual  time,  viz.,  during  the  early  summer,  and  the 
lambs  will  be  dropped  during  October  and  November.  The  mother's 
milk  is  the  best  feed  available,  and  ewes  must  be  fed  liberally  on 
milk-producing  feeds  so  as  to  give  a  maximum  flow  of  milk.  The 
ewes'  milk  is  supplemented  by  grain  feeds  as  the  lambs  grow  older. 
The  following  grain  mixtures  were  found  to  give  good  results  in 
trials  with  hot-house  lambs  at  Cornell  station : 8 

8  Bulletin  309,  which  see  for  description  of  the  method  of  management 
of  a  hot-house  lamb  producing  flock  throughout  the  year. 


FEEDING  SHEEP  AND  GOATS  327 

(1)  50  pounds  corn  meal,  50  pounds  wheat  middlings,  and  5 
pounds  oil  meal, 

(2)  25  pounds  wheat  bran,  25  pounds  wheat  middlings,   25 
pounds  hominy  meal,  8  pounds  linseed  meal. 

The  lambs  are  fed  grain  in  a  separate  pen  (creep),  as  pre- 
viously explained.  Kightly  handled,  hot-house  lambs  will  make  a 
sufficiently  rapid  growth  to  be  ready  for  the  market  in  ten  to 
twelve  weeks  from  birth.  They  will  gain  at  least  one-half  pound 
each  daily  during  this  period,  and  will  reach  a  weight  of  about  50 
pounds  at  slaughtering  time.  These  lambs  are  generally  marketed 
before  March,  as  the  prices  in  the  East,  where  they  are  mostly 
produced,  as  a  rule  go  down  after  this  time. 

Early  Spring  Lambs. — Fattening  early  spring  lambs  has  be- 
come an  important  industry  in  the  South.  By  the  use  of  Bermuda 
grass,  bur  clover,  and  Japan  clover,  permanent  pasture  may  be 
available  in  this  section  ten  months  of  the  year,  and  temporary 
winter  pasture  may  be  resorted  to  the  remaining  two  months,  thus 
giving  both  ewes  and  lambs  the  advantage  of  pasturage  during 
practically  the  entire  year;  the  lambs  may  be  fed  grain  separately 
and  marketed  during  April  to  June,  when  good  prices  prevail.9  In 
many  cases  the  ewes  are  fed  nothing  but  cotton-seed  meal  and 
cotton-seed  hulls,  the  daily  feed  being  .5  pound  meal  and  1.3 
pounds  hulls;  another  cheap  southern  feed  is  soybean  hay, 

Fall  Lambs. — Fattening  lambs  are  often  carried  until  fall  on 
pasturage,  with  a  slight  feed  of  grain,  say  one-half  pound  per  head 
daily,  and  are  sold  at  about  eight  months  old,  when  they  will  weigh 
in  the  neighborhood  of  100  pounds.  Eape  sown  in  the  corn  or  on 
ground  set  apart  especially  for  this  crop  will  furnish  excellent 
supplemental  feed  for  such  lambs,  as  well  as  for  fattening  sheep  in 
general.  If  rape  is  grown  by  itself,  it  is  either  sown  broadcast  or 
in  drills  30  inches  apart,  the  advantage  of  the  latter  method  being 
that  a  larger  yield  of  green  forage'  will  be  secured,  and  that  the 
field  can  be  kept  free  from  weeds  (p.  138).  Movable  hurdles  are 
generally  used  where  rape  is  pastured  off  by  sheep  or  swine. 

Winter  Lambs. — Another  method  is  to  fatten  the  lambs  during 
the  winter  season.  This  is  the  common  method  practised  in  regions 
where  lambs  are  fattened  for  market.  In  the  East  the  lambs  are 
generally  kept  in  rectangular  feeding  pens  with  hay  racks  and 
grain  troughs  provided  with  vertical  slats,  making  an  opening  for 
each  lamb.  They  are  put  on  full  feed  in  about  three  weeks  and 

g  Alabama  Bulletin  148 ;  Missouri  Circular  25 ;  Tennessee  Bulletin  84. 


328 


PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


fed  grain  until  in  the  right  condition  for  market.    Water  and  salt 
are  supplied  in  each  pen. 

In  the  corn  belt  the  common  method  is  to  feed  the  lambs  an 
abundance  of  good  hay  and  to  bring  them  slowly  on  to  full  grain 
ration,  beginning  with  one-fourth  pound  per  head  daily  and  gradu- 


FIG.  91.— Range  sheep  in  feed  yards  at  Caldwell,  Nevada.     (Iddings.) 


FIG.  92. — A  flock  of  sheep  on  a  western  range.     (Pacific  Rural  Press.) 

ally  increasing  this  to  one  pound  per  head  daily  in  about  three 
weeks,  after  which  time  they  get  all  the  grain  they  will  clean  up 
at  each  feeding;  less  hay  is  eaten  as  the  lambs  get  on  full  grain 
feed.  Lambs  thus  fed  should  make  a  gain  of  25  to  30  pounds  in  100 
days,  when  they  will  be  ready  for  market.  There  is  considerable 
variation  in  the  choice  of  grain  mixtures  and  other  feeds.  Corn 


FEEDING  SHEEP  AND  GOATS 


329 


with  wheat  bran,  oats,  or  linseed  meal  fed  in  varying  proportions, 
according  to  the  character  of  the  available  roughage  and  the  market 
prices  of  the  feeds,  makes  up  the  majority  of  the  rations  fed ;  other 
feeds  are  cotton-seed  meal,  soybeans,  peas,  and,  of  rough  feeds, 
roots  or  silage,  alfalfa  or  clover  hay,  corn  fodder,  etc.  The  lambs 
are  often  fattened  in  two  droves  in  the  corn  belt,  the  first  one  being 
purchased  in  November  and  fed  until  the  end  of  January,  when 
the  second  lot  is  purchased  and  fattened  by  the  first  of  May. 

In  the  western  States  extensive  lamb  and  sheep  feeding  opera- 
tions are  carried  on  each  year  (Figs.  91,  92,  93,  94).  The  sheep  are 
usually  separated  into  flocks  of  about  500  each  and  fed  in  lots 


FIG.  93. — Lamb-feeding  corrals  in  Nevada.     (Iddings.) 

arranged  in  rows  with  feeding  lanes  between.  No  shelter  is  pro- 
vided except  what  may  be  furnished  by  a  hay  or  straw  stack.  The 
sheep  are  brought  from  the  high  summer  ranges  to  these  feeding 
points  where  alfalfa  hay  is  available,  and  are  fed  all  the  hay  they 
will  eat  until  they  are  shipped.  If  grain  is  fed,  they  are  given 
three-fourths  to  one  pound  daily  per  head,  generally  Indian  corn, 
or  barley  or  wheat  in  the  far  western  States.  Experiments  at  the 
New  Mexico  station10  show  that  by  an  addition  of  corn  to  alfalfa 
hay  an  improved  quality  of  mutton  was  obtained  and  the  feeding 
period  was  shortened.  The  general  conclusion  drawn  is  that,  with 

10  Bulletin  79. 


330 


PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


alfalfa  alone,11  it  requires  about  110  to  120  days  to  fit  the  lambs 
for  the  local  market;  with  light  grain  ration  (one-fourth  pound 
per  head  per  day), '100 -to  110  days;  with  medium  grain  ration 
(one-half  pound),  90  to  100  days,  and  with  heavy  grain  ration 
(1  pound),  70  to  80  days.  The  gains  were  as  great  (but  not  as 
rapid)  with  one-fourth  pound  of  corn  per  head  daily  as  with  one- 
half  pound.  The  cost  of  the  gain  increased,  however,  with  an  in- 
crease in  the  grain  ration.  Other  prominent  feeds  used  for  fatten- 
ing sheep  in  the  West  besides  alfalfa  are  beet  pulp  and  field  peas 
(pp.  121  and  194). 

Western  sheep  men  calculate  that  the  wool  pays  the  cost  of  the 
sheep  feeding,  and  the  mutton  and  lambs  represent  the  profit  of  the 


FIG.  94. — Winter  scene  of  range  sheep  in  the  Nevada  mountains.      (Doten.) 

business.  Large  numbers  of  wethers  are  shipped  East  every  year 
from  these  States,  especially  to  Chicago,  and  either  go  directly  on 
the  market,  if  sufficiently  fat,  or  are  fed  at  some  feeding  station 
near  the  market  until  they  are  in  prime  condition  or  can  be  dis- 
posed of  to  good  advantage.  While  at  these  stations  they  are  fed 
hay,  corn,  and,  generally,  grain  screenings,  at  least  in  past  years. 

Value  of  Various  Grain  Feeds  for  Fattening  Lambs. — The 
following  table  shows  the  results  of  a  large  number  of  trials  with 
various  grains  for  fattening  lambs,  which  will  be  of  interest  in  this 
connection.  In  the  last  column  of  the  table  the  number  of  feed 
units  required  per  100  pounds  gain  are  given,  assuming  2%  pounds 

11  Farmers'  Bulletin  504,  p.  9. 


FEEDING  SHEEP  AND  GOATS 


331 


hay,  1.1  pounds  oats  or  emmer,  and  1  pound  corn,  wheat,  barley,  or 
screenings,  to  equal  one  feed  unit;  2  pounds  hay  (alfalfa)  in  the 
western  trials  were  assumed  to  be  equal  to  one  feed  unit. 

Feeding  Various  Grains  to  Fattening  Lambs  * 


Concentrate 

Num- 
ber of 
trials 

Average  ration 

Aver- 
age 
daily 
gain 

Feed  per  100 
pounds  gain 

Num- 
ber of 
feed 
units 

Grain 

Hay 

Grain 

Hay 

Indian  corn  t  

4 
4 
5 
3 
5 
4 
4 

1.4 
1.3 
1.2 
1.0 
1.1 
1.3 
1.3 

1.0 
1.5 
1.4 
1.7 
1.9 
1.8 
1.4 

.29 
.31 
.25 
.24 
.30 
.25 
.26 

506 
429 
475 
423 
390 
537 
488 

350 

478 
583 
744 
639 
691 
567 

646 
668 
708 
683 
646 
764 
715 

Indian  corn  J  
Wheat,  whole 

Oats,  whole  

Barley,  whole  

Wheat  screenings,  whole  

*  Condensed  from  summary  tables  in  Henry's  "Feeds  and  Feeding." 
t  Eastern  stations.  t  Western  stations. 

We  note  that  there  was  but  little  difference  in  the  nutritive 
effect  of  the  corn  and  barley,  the  average  daily  gains  made  by  the 
lambs  on  these  grains  being  0.3  pound;  the  other  grains  produced 
a  gain  of  about  one-fourth  pound  per  head  daily.  Considering  the 
feed  requirements  for  the  production  of  100  pounds  of  gain,  there 
were  only  slight  differences  between  corn,  barley,  and  oats,  while 
whole  wheat,  screenings,  and  emmer  gave  the  lowest  returns  per 
100  pounds  feed  units. 

Self-feeders  similar  to  those  used  in  the  case  of  self -fed  steers 
are  employed  by  some  sheep  farmers  in  feeding  fattening  lambs, 
a  supply  of  grain  feeds  sufficient  for  about  a  week  or  less  being 
placed  in  the  feeder.  The  lambs  are  able  to  take  all  the  grain  they 
want  as  it  comes  out  at  the  bottom  of  the  feed  trough.  As  in  the 
case  of  steer  feeding,  the  experience  of  farmers  with  self-fed  sheep 
has  been  both  favorable  and  unfavorable,  although  the  evidence 
seems,  on  the  whole,  more  unfavorable  than  with  self-fed  steers. 
According  to  results  obtained  at  the  Michigan  station,12  "  Fatten- 
ing lambs  by  means  of  a  self-feeder  is  an  expensive  practice,  and 
economy  of  production  requires  more  attention  to  the  variation 
in  the  appetites  of  the  animals  than  can  be  given  by  this  method." 
J.  E.  Wing,  a  noted  authority,  states13  that  not  only  is  the  death- 
rate  much  heavier  where  self-feeders  are  used,  but  the  cost  of  gain 
is  also  much  greater.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  the  use  of  self- 
feeders  for  sheep  cannot  be  recommended,  except  under  conditions 

12  Bulletin  128. 

13 "  Sheep  Farming  in  America";  see  also  Michigan  Bulletin  113, 
Minnesota  Bulletin  144,  Colorado  Bulletin  151. 


332 


PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


where  large  numbers  of  sheep  are  fed,  and  where  labor  is  scarce 
and  high. 

Rations  for  Fattening  Sheep. — The  rations  given  below  will 
show  the  kinds  and  amounts  of  different  feeding  stuffs  that  may  be 
fed  to  fattening  lambs  weighing  80  to  100  pounds: 

1.  2  pounds  clover  hay,  1  pound  wheat  bran,  ll/2  pounds  corn. 

2.  ll/2  pounds  hay,  iy2  pounds  roots,  1%  pounds  oats  and  wheat 
bran,  equal  weights. 

3.  l!/2  pounds  clover  hay,  1  pound  roots,  1  pound  corn,  y2 
pound  wheat  bran. 

4.  3  pounds  alfalfa  hay,  %  pound  corn. 


FIG.  95. — A  flock  of  Angora  goats  in  the  California  foothills.  These  goats  will  keep 
down  underbrush;  they  furnish  mohair  fiber  used  in  the  manufacture  of  plush  and  other 
fabrics. 

5.  1  pound  each  cotton-seed  hulls  and  cotton-seed  meal. 
G.  iy2  pounds  clover  hay,  1  pound  corn,  14  pound  wheat  bran, 
y2  pound  gluten  feed. 

7.  2  pounds  alfalfa  hay,  2  pounds  ground  corn  and  oats. 

8.  2  pounds  clover  hay,  iy2  pounds  soybeans,  y±  pound  wheat 
bran. 

Feeding  Goats. — Goat  raising  is  of  importance  as  an  industry 
in  only  four  or  five  States  in  the  Union,  viz.,  in  Texas,  New  Mexico, 
Arizona,  Oregon,  and  California  (Fig.  95).  In  1910  there  were 
nearly  three  million  goats  and  kids  in  the  United  States,  of  which 
over  a  million  were  in  Texas  and  about  one-half  million  in  New 
Mexico.  Nearly  three-quarters  of  the  number  of  goats  in  the 
country  were  found  within  the  borders  of  the  five  States  mentioned. 


FEEDING  SHEEP  AND  GOATS 


333 


The  number  of  goats  in  other  States  is  very  small,  and  it  is  safe 
to  say  that  the  goats  kept  in  them  do  not  often  receive  any  special 
attention  as  to  feed  or  care ;  they  are,  as  a  rule,  kept  in  very  small 
flocks  and  are  left  to  browse  and  find  their  feed  along  the  roadside, 
on  vacant  town  lots,  and  in  waste  places. 

As  in  the  case  of  sheep,  there  are  two  distinct  types  of  goats : 
One  kept  on  account  of  their  fleece,  and  the  other  type  for  milk 
production.  The  former,  which  are  by  far  the  more  numerous  in 
this  country,  are  represented  by  the  Angora  goat,  whose  fleece  fur- 
nishes the  mohair  fiber;  the  latter  by  imported  milch  breeds,  espe- 


FIG.  96. — An  imported  Swiss  milch  goat.    (Toggenburg.)    These  goats  will  produce  over  1000 
pounds  of  milk  per  year,  or  about  one-fourth  as  much  as  an  ordinary  dairy  cow.  (Peterson.) 

cially  Swiss  milch  goats.  Angoras  in  the  far  western  States  and  in 
the  north  central  States  serve  a  useful  purpose  in  keeping  down 
the  underbrush;  in  California  and  other  western  States  they  are 
used  for  keeping  the  fire  lines  in  the  forest  reserves  open  and  free 
from  underbrush.  The  goats  greatly  relish  the  fresh  leaves  and 
buds  and  tender  twigs  of  bushes  and  deciduous  trees,  and  keep  in 
good,  healthy  condition  on  this  feed  with  what  pasturage  they  may 
find.  Grain  is  only  fed  when  they  are  fattened  for  slaughtering. 
Milch  Goats. — While  the  Angora  goats  will  do  well  on  brush- 
wood alone,  the  milch  goats  require  a  more  varied  feed  to  give  milk 
of  good  quality  and  flavor  and  to  produce  milk  during  a  full  lacta- 
tion period  (Fig.  96).  Goats'  milk  contains  about  4.8  per  cent 


334  PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

butter  fat,  on  the  average  (p.  206).  A  common  doe  will  give  a 
couple  of  pounds  of  milk  a  day  for  five  or  six  months,  while  a  good 
milch  goat  will  yield  three  to  four  times  this  amount  and  con- 
tinue to  produce  milk  from  eight  to  ten  months.  Goats  are  easy 
keepers,  they  require  but  little  care  and  attention,  and  are  economi- 
cal milk  producers.  They  are  often  spoken  of  as  "  the  poor  man's 
cow,"  on  account  of  their  low  cost  of  keep  and  because  they  are 
generally  kept  by  people  who  cannot  afford  to  buy  a  cow;  three  or 
four  milch  goats  will  produce  as  much  milk  as  a  good  cow;  on  the 
other  hand,  it  is  stated  on  good  authority  that  eight  goats  can 
subsist  and  yield  a  good  flow  of  milk  upon  the  amount  of  feed  that 
is  required  for  one  cow.14 

Milch  goats  should  receive  a  supply  of  good  hay,  preferably 
leguminous,  such  as  clover,  alfalfa,  cowpeas,  etc.,  throughout  the 
year.  Fine,  bright  corn  fodder,  straw,  or  other  dry  feed  may  also 
be  given  in  amounts  of  two  to  four  pounds  per  head  daily,  when 
they  are  not  on  grass.  Good  vegetable  kitchen  refuse  may  often  be 
fed  to  advantage.  Oats,  barley,  and  wheat  bran  are  excellent  grain 
feeds  for  goats,  one-half  to  one  pound  per  head  being  the  average 
daily  allowance.  These  may  be  fed  separately  or  equal  weights  of 
each  mixture.  A  little  linseed  meal,  two  to  three  ounces  a  day 
per  head,  makes  a  valuable  addition  to  the  ration ;  somewhat  heavier 
grain  feeding,  viz.,  up  to  one  and  one-half  or  even  two  pounds  per 
head  daily,  will  pay  well  during  the  early  part  of  the  lactation,  in 
the  case  of  milch  goats  of  exceptional  productive  capacity.  Pure 
water  and  salt  should  be  supplied  regularly,  as  in  the  case  of  sheep. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  the  two  types  of  sheep  kept  in  this  country,  and  give  the  sections 

where  each  type  is  mainly  kept. 

2.  Give  several  reasons  why  it  is  desirable  to  keep  sheep  on  most  farms. 

3.  How  is  the  production   of  wool   influenced   by  the  method  of   feeding 

practised  ? 

4.  Give  the  average  weight  of  lambs  at  birth. 

5.  Discuss  briefly  the  method  of  feeding  (a)  rams,  (6)  ewes,  (c)  lambs. 

6.  State    the   methods    followed   in    fattening    ( a )     sheep,    ( 6 )    hot-house 

lambs,  (c)  early  spring  lambs,  (d)  fall  lambs,  (e)  winter  lambs. 

7.  Give  the  principal  methods  adapted  in  fattening  western  sheep. 

8.  State  the  value  of  the  self-feeder  in  fattening  sheep. 

9.  Name  the  two  types  of  goats  kept  in  this  country,  and  state  in  what 

section  each  one  is  most  important. 

10.  Give  the  method  of  feeding  goats  generally  found  in  your  locality. 

1 1.  What  relation  have  goats  to  forestry  work  in  this  country  ? 

12.  How  much  milk  will  an  average  milch  goat  produce  in  a  year,  and  what 

is  the  quality  of  the  milk  compared  with  cows'  milk? 

13.  Why  is  the  goat  called  "  the  poor  man's  cow  "? 

14  Thompson,  "  Angora  Goat  Raising  and  Milch  Goats,"  p.  200. 


FEEDING  SHEEP  AND  GOATS  335 

Literature  on  Sheep  and  Goats. — Craig,  "  Sheep  Farming,"  New  York, 
1913.  Kleinheinz,  "  Sheep  Management,"  Madison,  Wis.,  1912.  Powers, 
"  The  American  Merino,"  New  York,  1907.  Doane,  "  Sheep  Feeding  and 
Farm  Management,".  Boston,  1912.  Stewart,  "  The  Domestic  Sheep,"  Chicago, 
1900.  Wing,  "  Sheep  Farming  in  America,"  Chicago.  Miller  and  Wing, 
"  The  Winter  Lamb,"  Mechanicsburg,  Ohio,  1907.  Shaw,  "  Sheep  Husbandry 
in  Minnesota,"  St.  Paul,  Minn.,  1901.  "  Shepherd  Boy,"  "  Modern  Sheep, 
Breeds  and  Management,"  Chicago,  1907.  Wrightson,  "  Sheep,  Breeds  and 
Management,"  London,  1903.  Shaw  and  Heller,  "  The  Management  of  Sheep 
on  the  Farm,"  Farmers'  Bulletin  20,  1894.  Craig,  "  Sheep  Feeding,"  Farmers' 
Bulletin  49,  1897.  Curtiss,  "  Raising  Sheep  for  Mutton,"  Farmers'  Bulletin 
96,  1899.  Thompson,  "  Angora  Goat  Raising  and  Milch  Goats,"  Chicago, 
1903.  Schreiner,  "  The  Angora  Goat,"  New  York,  1898.  Thompson,  "  Infor- 
mation Concerning  the  Milch  Goat,"  Bureau  Animal  Industry,  U.  S.  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  Bulletin  68,  1905.  Thompson  and  Shaw,  "  The 
Angora  Goat,"  Farmers'  Bulletin  137,  1908.  Heller,  "The  Angora  Goat," 
Farmers'  Bulletin  573. 

Experiment  Station  Publications. — Colo.,  b.  32,  52,  75,  76;  111.,  b.  129, 
166;  c.  125;  Ind.,  b.  147,  162;  Iowa,  b.  17,  18,  33,  35,  48,  63,  110;  c.  6; 
Mich.,  b.  84,  107,  114,  128,  136,  178,  220;  Minn.,  b.  44,  57,  59,  75,  78; 
Mo.,  b.  115;  Mont.,  b.  21,  27,  35,  39,  47,  59;  Neb.,  b.  66,  71;  N.  H.,  c.  16; 
N.  Y.  (Cornell),  b.  309;  Ohio,  b.  179,  187;  Okla.,  b.  78;  S.  D.,  b.  71,  86; 
Utah,  b.  78,  90;  Wis.,  r.  '97,  '04,  '05;  b.  32,  41,  58;  Wyo.,  b.  47,  51,  64,  68, 
69,  73,  81;  Ont.  (Guelph),  r.  91;  Farmers'  Bulletins  49,  98,  556;  U.  S.  Bur. 
An.  Ind.  b.  77;  c.  18. 


APPENDIX 


TABLE  I. — Average  Composition  and  Digestibility  of  American  Feeding  Stuffs, 

in  Per  Cent 


Feeding  stuffs 

Moist- 
ure 

Pro- 
tein 

Fat 

Fiber 

Nitro- 
gen- 
free 
extract 

Ash 

Digestible 

Pro- 
tein 

Car- 
bohy- 
drates 
and  fat 

A.  ROUGHAGE: 

Green  Feeds: 
Alfalfa  

71.8 
74.8 
79.0 
71.7 
73.8 

84.7 
80.0 
85.0 
80.9 

84.2 

71.1 
79.3 
73.2 
75.0 
75.0 

65.1 
80.0 

69.9 
62.2 
80.0 

73.0 
80.0 

79.7 
70.8 
65.3 

76.6 
79.5 
79.4 
75.1 
80.0 

4.8 
3.9- 
2.7 
2.2 
5.5 

2.8 
1.5 
2.8 
3.1 
2.8 

3.1 
1.8 
3.1 
2.1 
1.2 

4.1 
3.0 

2.4 
3.4 
3.0 

2.6 
3.5 
2.4 
4.4 

2.8 

2.6 
2.7 
1.3 
4.0 
3.8 

1.0 
.9 
.6 
.9 
2.0 

.5 
.3 

.4 

.7 
.4 

.7 
.5 
1.3 
.5 
.3 

1.3 

.4 

.8 
1.4 
.5 

.9 
.8 
.6 
1.1 
.9 

.6 

.7 
.5 
1.0 
.6 

7.4 

7.4 
7.9 
5.9 
5.9 

4.4 
6.5 
3.5 
5.2 
4.9 

9.2 
5.0 
6.8 
7.8 
8.9 

9.1 

5.8 

10.8 
11.2 
6.3 

8.2 
4.0 
6.1 
8.1 
11.0 

11.6 
5.4 
6.1 
6.7 
6.3 

12.3 
11.0 
8.0 
17.2 
10.5 

6.3 
10.5 
6.3 
8.4 
6.5 

14.2 
12.2 
13.3 
13.1 
13.2 

17.6 
8.9 

14.3 
19.3 
8.4 

13.2 
9.7 
9.6 
13.5 
17.7 

6.8 

8.6 
11.6 
10.6 

7.4 

2.7 
2.0 
.6 
2.1 
2.3 

1.3 
1.0 
2.0 
1.7 
1.2 

1.7 
f.2 
2.5 
1.5 
1.4 

2.8 
1.9 

1.8 
2.5 
1.8 

2.0 
2.0 
1.6 
2.1 
2.3 

1.8 
3.2 
1.1 
2.6 
1.9 

3.6, 
2.6" 
1.9 
1.3 
3.6 

1.8 
.8 
2.1 
2.4 
2.3 

2.0 
1.0 
1.5 
1.1 
.6 

2.8 
2.0 

1.6 
2.5 
2.3 

1.2 
2.5 
1.8 
2.9 
1.9 

2.1 
2.1 
.6 
3.1 
2.5 

13.0 
12.5 
11.1 
14.3 
13.5 

7.6 
11.5 

7.7 
10.2 
7.8 

16.8 
12.8 
14.2 
14.3 
14.2 

21.5 
9.6 

19.7 
20.5 
10.5 

14.5 
11.2 
11.1 
16.5 
22.4 

15.0 
9.8 
13.1 
12.1 
9.3 

Alsike  clover.  .  .  . 

Barley  fodder  
Bermuda  grass.  .  .  . 
Burr  clover  

Canada  field  pea  .  . 
Common  millet  .  .  . 
Cow  pea 

Crimson  clover.  .  .  . 
Horse  bean  

Hungarian  grass  .  . 
Indian  corn  fodder 
Italian  rye  grass  l  . 
Japanese  millet  .  .  . 
Johnson  grass  

Kentucky     blue 
grass  
Mammoth    red 
clover  
Meadow  fescue,  in 
bloom  
Oat  fodder  
Oats  and  vetch.  .  .  . 

Orchard  grass,   in 
bloom 

Pasture  grass  
Peas  and  oats  
Red  clover  
Red  top,  in  bloom  . 

Rye  fodder  

Serradella  

Sorghum  fodder  .  . 
Soybean. 

Sweet  clover  

22 


1  Coming  into  bloom. 


337 


338 


APPENDIX 


TABLE  I. — Average  Composition  and  Digestibility  of  American  Feeding  Stuffs, 
in  Per  Cent — Continued 


Feeding  stuffs 

Moist- 
ure 

Pro- 
tein 

Fat 

Fiber 

Nitro- 
gen- 
free 
extract 

Ash 

Digestible 

Pro- 
tein 

Car- 
bohy- 
drates 
and  fat 

A.  ROUGHAGE  —  Con. 
Green  Feeds  —  Con. 
Timothy,  different 
stages  

61.6 

82.2 
85.0 

85.3 
80.0 

77.3 

15.0 
7.1 
40.5 

42.4 
12.0 

7.7 
8.5 
10.2 
52.1 

21.2 

10.4 
20.0 
40.9 
15.3 
6.6 

14.0 
9.9 
8.9 
16.6 

14.3 

41.7 

18.9 
13.2 

3.1 
3.5 

2.7 

3.6 
3.4 

2.4 

8.8 
10.7 
3.8 

4.5 
7.5 

7.5 
7.5 
7.2 
2.5 

7.8 

5.5 
7.0 
2.9 

7.4 
8.5 

8.9 
8.1 
7.9 
11.6 

9.7 

3.2 
7.6 
5.9 

1.2 

.7 
.4 

.4 
.5 

.7 

2.4 
2.9 
1.1 

1.6 

1.8 

2.1 

1.7 
2.1 

1.8 

3.9 

2.4 
2.7 
2.3 
2.5 

3.8 

2.8 
2.6 
1.9 
3.1 

2.2 

2.9 
2.6 
2.5 

11.8 
5.1 

4.5 

4.0 
6.4 

5.9 

24.7 
25.0 
19.7 

14.3 
33.5 

27.7 
30.5 
28.5 
21.0 

23.0 

30.0 
25.9 
19.1 
27.2 
29.9 

27.4 
32.4 
28.6 
22.5 

22.8 

17.0 

24.9 
29.0 

20.2 
6.6 
6.1 

4.6 

8.1 

11.9 

44.9 
51.0 
31.5 

34.7 

39.8 

49.0 
45.0 
45.9 
20.1 

37.8 

44.1 

38.4 
31.8 
42.1 
44.6 

41.2 
41.0 
47.5 
39.4 

41.6 

32.2 
36.0 
45.0 

2.1 
1.9 
1.4 

2.1 
1.6 

1.8 

4.2 
3.5 
3.4 

2.7 
5.4 

6.0 
6.9 
6.1 

2.4 

6.3 

7.7 
6.8 
2.9 
5.5 
6.6 

5.7 
6.0 
5.2 
6.8 

9.4 

3.0 

9.9 
4.4 

1.5 
2.7 
1.9 

2.8 
2.6 

1.7 

5.7 
6.4 
1.4 

2.5 

4.3 

5.0 
4.5 
2.9 
1.1 

4.4 

3.1 

4.2 
1.2 
4.2 

4.8 

4.7 
4.9 
4.8 
8.0 

6.6 

1.3 
4.2 

2.8 

21.3 
9.3 
7.1 

7.1 
11.0 

12.9 

45.9 

48.5 
32.8 

37.3 
43.4 

49.4 
45.4 
47.4 

24.8 

41.3 

41.7 
40.3 
30.3 
44.9 
53.8 

40.5 
45.6 
49.1 
45.4 

47.9 

29.6 
46.6 
45.3 

Velvet  bean  
Vetch,  spring  
Vetch,    winter,    or 
sand 

Wheat  and  vetch.  . 
Wheat  fodder  

Hay  from  Grasses: 
Barley  hay  
Bermuda  grass.  .  .  . 
Cornstalks  (stover) 
Fodder  corn,  field- 
cured  

Foxtail 

Hungarian  grass  .  . 
Italian  rye  grass  . 
Johnson  grass  
Kafir  forage 

Kentucky     blue 
grass 

Marsh  grass  
Meadow  fescue  .  .  . 
Milo  forage  
Mixed  grasses  
Native  hay  

Oat  hay 

Orchard  grass  
Red  top  
Rowen  (mixed)  .  .  . 
Smooth     brome 
grass  

Sweet    sorghum 
forage 

Teosinte  
Timothy  

APPENDIX 


339 


TABLE  I. — Average  Composition  and  Digestibility  of  American  Feeding  Stuffs, 
in  Per  Cent — Continued 


Feeding  stuffs 

Moist- 
ure 

Pro- 
tein 

Fat 

Fiber 

Nitro- 
gen- 
free 
extract 

Ash 

Digestible 

Pro- 
tein 

Car- 
bohy- 
drates 
and  fat 

42.5 
42.2 
42.2 
37.6 

46.4 
40.9 

39.4 
43.9 
49.0 
41.9 

43.6 
37.8 
55.7 
44.3 

41.5 
38.5 
36.7 
41.3 
41.5 

35.9 
34.6 
41.3 
40.5 
42.4 

26.8 
36.1 

6.1 

8.4 
29.4 
21.7 

15.2 

A.  ROUGHAGE  —  Con. 
Hay  from  Legumes: 
Alfalfa           .... 

8.1 

9.7 
10.5 
9.6 

9.2 
11.0 

21.2 
10.0 
7.6 
15.3 

11.8 
9.2 
10.0 
11.3 

14.2 
9.9 
10.0 
9.2 
10.0 

15.0 
14.3 
9.2 
7.1 
10.1 

14.3 
9.6 

90.0 
88.6 
66.0 
79.5 

79.5 

14.6 

12.8 
14.2 
15.2 

11.8 
13.8 

10.7 
10.3 
10.7 
12.3 

14.9 
18.0 
14.0 
17.0 

3.5 
5.2 
5.1 
8.8 
10.7 

4.1 
4.0 
4.0 
3.0 
4.6 

4.5 
3.4 

2.6 
1.1 
1.1 

.7 

2.6 

2.1 
2.9 
2.6 

2.8 

2.9 
3.7 

3.9 
2.6 
4.6 
3.3 

4.3 
3.2 

1.8 
2.3 

1.5 
1.3 
3.1 
1.4 
1.9 

1.8 
1.5 
2.3 
1.2 
1.7 

1.4 
1.3 

.2 
.4 
.2 
6.6 

.2 

28.9 

25.6 
21.2 
27.2 

29.3 
24.0 

24.5 
28.3 
23.6 

24.8 

24.2 
28.0 
37.7 
25.4 

36.0 
43.0 
42.7 
37.6 
21.1 

34.2 
34.0 
37.0 
38.9 
40.4 

36.0 
.38.1 

.9 
1.3 
1.8 
2.2 

.8 

37.4 
40.7 
42.6 
36.6 

42.1 
39.0 

33.6 
41.2 
42.7 
38.1 

37.8 
41.8 
30.6 
36.1 

39.0 
35.1 
35.2 
34.3 
46.7 

39.7 
36.2 
42.4 
46.6 
37.4 

34.6 
43.4 

5.5 
7.6 
30.2 
10.5 

15.9 

8.8 
8.3 
8.9 
8.6 

4.7 
8.5 

6.1 
7.1 

10.8 
6.2 

7.0 
9.9 
5.9 
7.9 

5.7 
5.5 
3.9 

8.7 
9.6 

5.2 
10.0 
5.1 
3.2 

5.8 

9.2 
4.2 

.8 
1.0 

.7 
.4 

1.0 

10.5 
8.4 
9.2 
10.5 

6.S 
9.1 

6.2 
7.6 
6.7 
7.1 

10.6 
11.9 
9.6 
11.9 

.9 
1.2 
1.2 
4.3 
5.4 

.9 
1.5 
1.3 

.7 
2.3 

1.2 

.8 

2.3 

.8 
.8 
.6 

1.3 

Alsike  clover  

Cowpea  
Crimson  clover 
Florida    beggar 
weed             .  . 

Japan  clover  
Mammoth   red 
clover 

Oat  and  pea..-.  .  .  . 
Peanut  vines  
Red  clover           .  . 

Soybean  
Sweet  clover  

Velvet  bean   
Winter  vetch  

Straw,  Chaff,  etc, 
Barley  straw  
Buckwheat  
Flax  shives  
Horse  bean  
Lima  bean  

Millet  
Oat  chaff  
Oat  straw           .  .  . 

Rye  straw  
Soybean  

Wheat  chaff  

Wheat  straw  

Roots,  Tubers,  etc. 
Cabbage  

Carrot  

Cassava 

Chufa 

Jerusalem   a  r  t  i  - 
choke  

340 


APPENDIX 


TABLE  I. — Average  Composition  and  Digestibility  of  American  Feeding  Stuffs, 
in  Per  Cent — Continued 


Feeding  stuffs 

Moist- 
ure 

Pro- 
tein 

Fat 

Fiber 

Nitro- 
gen- 
free 
extract 

Ash 

Digestible 

Pro- 
tein 

Car- 
bohy- 
drates 
and  fat 

A.  ROUGHAGE  —  Con. 
Roots,  Tubers,  etc.  — 
Con. 
Kohlrabi  

88.5 
90.9 
88.3 
94.5 
79.1 

90.9 

85.7 
88.6 
86.5 
68.3 

90.1 

55.3 

80.8 
83.0 
5.0 

78.5 

64.4 
4.9 

84.2 
75.8 
88.0 

74.4 
85.0 
74.0 

79.0 
76.0 

83.8 
73.7 
79.3 
50.1 
79.7 

1.3 
1.4 
1.6 

.8 
2.1 

1.3 
2.2 
1.2 

1.8 
1.9 

1.3 

2.5 
.7 
1.0 
5.4 
1.4 

1.0 
9.5 
.7 
3.5 
2.6 

4.8 
1.2 
2.6 

2.8 
2.5 

1.4 
2.2 
2.7 
5.9 
1.2 

.2 
.2 
.2 
.2 
.1 

.4 
.5 
.2 
.1 

.7 

.2 

1.9 
.4 
.9 
2.4 
.6 

.9 
4.5 
.3 
.5 

.4 

1.1 
1.1 
1.2 

1.0 

.8 

1.1 
.9 
1.5 
1.6 

.7 

1.2 
.9 
1.0 
1.2 

.4 

1.7 
2.1 
1.3 

.9 
1.1 

1.2 

4.4 
1.2 
2.9 
46.6 
3.6 

15.1 
25.8 
2.4 
3.9 
2.2 

3.8 
3.3 
9.0 

7.2 
7.2 

5.2 
6.5 
6.0 
13.0 
7.0 

8.1 
5.5 
10.2 
2.9 
17.4 

5.2 
7.0 
7.5 

9.8 
26.8 

6.3 

34.8 
16.6 
11.6 
37.9 
12.3 

18.0 
45.1 
9.0 
10.5 
4.4 

8.9 
8.8 
10.7 

7.2 
11.1 

7.9 
15.1 
7.6 
26.0 
9.5 

.7 

1.1 

.7 
.4 
.9 

.5 
2.5 
1.2 

.9 
1.1 

.9 

1.0 
.4 
.6 

2.7 
3.6 

.6 
9.7 
3.1 

5.8 
2.4 

5.1 
.6 
2.5 

2.8 
2.4 

.6 
1.6 
2.9 
3.5 
1.8 

.9 
1.0 
1.1 

.7 
1.1 

1.0 
2.0 
1.0 
1.3 

.8 

.9 

2.1 

.8 
.51 
3.0 
.9 

.51 
3.2 
.4 
2.2 
1.9 

2.3 

.7 
1.8 

1.6 
1.6 

.8 
1.1 
1.5 
3.4 
.3 

8.1 

6.0 
10.6 
3.8 
15.9 

6.3 
8.7 
8.6 
10.0 
23.6 

6.6 

38.2 
17.0 
10.7 
28.9 
12.0 

21.5 

38.2 
6.7 
9.2 
5.5 

12.8 
10.7 
14.7 

10.8 
14.8 

10.4 
16.5 
10.6 

27.8 
10.8 

Mangel  

Parsnip  

Pie  melon  ..;.... 

Potato 

Pumpkin 

Rape  

Rutabaga  
Sugar  beet  
Sweet  potato 

Turnip  

Miscellaneous  Coarse 
Feeds: 
Acorns  

Apples  

Apple  pomace..  .  . 
Brush  feed  
Cane  cacti 

Icelandic  moss  .  .  . 
Oak  leaves 

Prickly  pear  ...    . 

Salt  bush  .   .     . 

Sugar  beet  leaves. 

Silage: 
Alfalfa  

Apple  pomace  
Barley  

Barnyard  millet 
and  soybean  .  .  . 
Corn  and  soybeans 

Corn    cannery 
refuse  

Corn  stover 

Cowpea  

Canada  field  pea  .  . 
Durra 

Assumed. 


APPENDIX 


341 


TABLE  I. — Average  Composition  and  Digestibility  of  American  Feeding  Stuffs, 
in  Per  Cent — Continued 


Feeding  stuffs 

Moist- 
ure 

Pro- 
tein 

Fat 

Fiber 

Nitro- 
gen- 
free 
extract 

Ash 

Digestible 

Pro- 
tein 

Car- 
bohy- 
drates 
and  fat 

A.  ROUGHAGE  —  Con. 
Silage  —  Con. 
Indian  corn  
Kafir  corn  
Millet  
Milo  maize.  .  . 

73.6 
67.2 
74.0 
74.6 
72.0 

77.0 

76.8 
72.0 
80.8 
76.1 

74.2 

76.0 
90.0 

70.3 

10.8 
12.8 
13.4 
15.0 
15.1 

15.0 
9.9 
14.6 
12.6 
8.0 

9.2" 

11.6 
11.3 
10.6 
11.3 

8.8 
9.9 
12.1 
9.0 
10.4 

2.7 

2.1 
1.7 
2.2 
2.2 

1.9 
2.8 
4.2 
2.4 

.8 

4.1 

2.0 
1.5 

6.3 

12.0 
9.9 
10.8 
23.7 

8.5 

9.2 
19.4 
20.5 
10.0 
11.5 

22.6 

12.5 
26.6 
10.3 
10.5 

11.6 
11.2 
10.9 
10.7 
11.4 

.9 
1.4 

.8 
.7 
1.2 

1.4 
1.3 
1.2 
.3 
.3 

2.2 

1.0 

.4 

2.1 

1.8 
3.2 
2.4 
.8 
3.5 

3.8 
19.5 
1.5 
3.9 
2.2 

33.7 

3.0 
1.0 
5.0 
5.0 

8.1 
3.1 
3.5 

2.8 
4.8 

7.8 
11.2 
7.5 
7.9 
9.4 

9.1 
6.5 

8.4 
5.8 
6.4 

9.7 

3.0 
3.1 

4.5 

4.2 
7.0 
11.7 
7.9 
6.6 

1.9 
22.6 
3.9 
1.9 
11.1 

7.1 

4.9 
7.2 
2.2 
1.7 

2.8 
2.7 
8.1 
3.0 
10.8 

12.9 
15.2 
13.6 
12.7 
13.1 

8.6 
11.3 
11.6 
9.2 
15.3 

7.0 

14.3 

4.7 

15.6 

68.7 
64.3 
59.7 
50.2 
64.8 

68.7  ' 
23.9 
56.3 
69.7 
62.9 

23.2 

65.1 
50.1 
70.4 
70.1 

66.8 
71.5 
62.6 
72.2 
59.4 

2.1 
2.9 
2.4 
1.8 
2.1 

2.0 
1.3 
2.6 
1.6 
1.1 

2.8 

3.7 
.3 

1.2 

2.5 
2.8 
2.0 
2.4 
1.5 

1.4 
4.7 
3.2 
1.9 
3.9 

4.3 

2.9 
3.8 
1.5 
1.4 

1.9 
1.6 
2.8 
2.3 
3.2 

1.4 

.6 
.2 
.6 
1.5 

1.1 
2.1 
2.0 

.7 
.6 

2.7 

1.3 
1.1 

4.6 

9.4 
4.6 
8.1 
19.7 
4.4 

6.7 
12.5 
16.8 
4.6 
10.0 

20.6 

9.6 
23.1 
7.8 
8.0 

8.8 
5.2 
7.1 
4.9 
10.7 

15.8 
16.7 
14.5 
12.9 
16.8 

12.9 
14.9 
15.7 
9.5 
15.4 

11.7 

9.1 
5.2 

15.6 

75.9 
45.6 
53.2 
50.2 
66.5 

72.2 
68.9 
57.4 
45.8 
60.2 

82.4 

52.5 
51.6 
76.5 
75.9 

79.5 
47.5 
54.1 
47.7 
62.3 

Oats  

Orchard  grass  
Pea  cannery  refuse 
Red  clover  
Rye 

Sorghum  

Soybean  
Sugar  beet  leaves 
and  tops  
Sugar  beet  pulp  .  .  . 
Wet    brewers' 
grains 

B.  CONCENTRATES: 
Grains  and  Seeds: 
Barley  .... 

Broom  corn  
Buckwheat  
Canada  field  pea  .  . 
Corn-and-cob  meal 

Corn  meal  
Cotton  seed  
Cowpea. 

Egyptian  corn  .... 
Emmer  

Flaxseed  .  .  . 

Grain      screenings 
(wheat)  
Horse  bean  
Indian  corn,  dent  . 
Indian  corn,  flint  .  . 

Indian  corn,  sweet 
Kafir  corn  
Millet  

Milo  maize  . 

Oats  

342 


APPENDIX 


TABLE  I. — Average  Composition  and  Digestibility  of  American  Feeding  Stuffs, 
in  Per  Cent — Continued 


Feeding  stuffs 

Moist- 
ure 

Pro- 
tein 

Fat 

Fiber 

Nitro- 
gen- 
free 
extract 

Ash 

Digestible 

Pro- 
tein 

Car- 
bohy- 
drates 
and  fat 

B.  CONCENTRATES  — 
Con. 
Grains  and  Seeds  — 
Con. 
Rice,  hulled 

12.4 

8.7 
12.8 
11.7 
10.5 

10.4 
10.5 

8.9 
20.8 
8.4 
89!8 

8.7 

75.7 
8.2 
11.6 
13.2 

12.8 

25.9 
14.1 

7.6 
9.4 
10.7 

11.3 
7.0 

7.6 
8.6 
9.2 

9.5 
9.6 

9.0 

9.8 
9.5 

7.4 

11.3 
9.1 
33.5 
11.9 

12.5 
11.8 

13.8 
9.1 
8.1 
.9 

25.0 

5.4 
12.6 
18.3 
4.6 

26.7 

2.7 
19,5 

24.2 
11.2 
2.4 

4.2 
45.3 

31.2 
21.7 
25.0 

33.8 
10.5 

37.5 

33.9 
26.3 

.4 

1.9 
3.6 
17.2 
2.1 

2.2 
2.1 

3.9 

".7 

6.7 

1.6 
3.5 
4.9 
1.1 

6.8 

10.4 

9.7 
6.2 
.5 

2.2 
10.2 

12.2 
11.2 
3.5 

6.6 
8.0 

2.9 

7.8 
1.6 

.2 
1.5 
2.6 

L8 

1.8 
1.8 

9.1 

17.5 
2.4 

13.6 

3.8 
32.9 
19.2 
43.5 

4.4 

9.5 

21.1 
11.9 
30.1 

45.3 
6.3 

11.6 

3.8 
6.8 

2.0 

4.9 

8.9 

7.3 
11.6 

79.2 
74.5 
69.8 
28.3 
71.9 

71.2 
72.0 

59.9 
59.5 
60.8 
6.3 

42.3 

12.5 
37.9 
42.1 
35.3 

44.3 

65.1 
42.1 

32.5 
60.1 
54.9 

34.1 

24.6 

35.4 
47.3 
53.5 

46.6 
64.3 

36.4 

35.9 
44.9 

.4 
2.1 
2.1 

4.8 
1.8 

1.9 
1.8 

4.4 
10.6 
4.5 
.6 

3.7 

1.0 
4.9 
3.9 
2.2 

5.0 

6.3 
4.4 

4.9 
1.2 
1.4 

2.7 
6.6 

2.0 
2.4 
2.0 

1.5 
2.7 

5.5 

5.5 
6.1 

6.4 

9.5 
4.5 
29.1 

8.8 

9.3 

8.7 

11.5 

4.7 
4.1 
.5 

20.0 

4.9 
5.9 
15.6 
1.2 

22.7 

1.4  ' 
16.4 

17.9 
6.0 
.5 

.4 
37.6 

22.8 
15.8 
21.3 

29.7 
6.8 

31.5 

30.2 
20.3 

i  80.1 
72.1 
67.4 
56.2 
70.9 

69.8 
70.4 

66.8 
54.1 
64.9 

7.7 

45.7 

11.4 
38.5 
48.1 
29.7 

51.2 

59.2 
64.2 

47.6 
63.4 

44.8 

34.8 
43.0 

65.8 
63.1 
59.3 

56.2 

77.2 

41.1 

47.5 
49.2 

Rye  

Sorghum  

Soybean  

Wheat,  all  analyses 

Wheat,  spring  
Wheat,  winter.  .  .  . 

Factory  By-products: 
Barley  feed  
Beet  molasses  
Beet  pulp,  dried.  .  . 
Beet  pulp,  wet  .... 
Brewers'  grains, 
dried 

Brewers'  grains, 
wet 

Buckwheat  bran  .  . 
Buckwheat  feed.  .  . 
Buckwheat  hulls.  . 
Buckwheat      mid- 
dlings 

Cane  molasses  .... 
Coconut  meal  
Cold-pressed    cot- 
ton-seed cake  .  .  . 
Corn  bran  

Corn  cobs  

Cotton-seed  hulls. 
Cotton-seed  meal  . 
Dried  distillers' 
grains  
Germ  oil  meal. 

Gluten  feed  

Gluten  meal  
Hominy  meal  
Linseed  meal,  new- 
process  

Linseed  meal,  old- 
process  

Malt  sprouts  

APPENDIX 


343 


TABLE  I. — Average  Composition  and  Digestibility  of  American  Feeding  Stuffs, 
in  Per  Cent — Continued 


Feeding  stuffs 

Moist- 
ure 

Pro- 
tein 

Fat 

Fiber 

Nitro- 
gen 
free' 
extract 

Ash 

Digestible 

Pro- 
tein 

Car-  } 
bohy- 
drates 
and  fat 

B.  CONCENTRATES  — 

Con. 

Factory  By-products 

—Con. 

Molasses  beet  pulp 

7.0 

9.6 

.5 

16.1 

61.3 

5.5 

6.1 

68.7 

Oat  dust  

6.5 

13.5 

4.8 

18.2 

50.2 

6.9 

5.1 

38.0 

Oat  feed  

7.0 

8.0 

2.9 

21.5 

55.3 

5.3 

5.2 

36.0 

Oat  shorts 

8.8 

16.2 

6.9 

7.1 

56.5 

4.5 

13.1 

72.3 

Peanut  meal  

10.7 

47.6 

8.0 

5.1 

23.7 

4.9 

42.9 

38.3 

Red-dog  flour  

9.9 

18.4 

4.0 

3.0 

63.5 

2.6 

16.2 

64.7 

Rice  bran  

9.7 

11.9 

10.1 

12.0 

46.6 

9.7 

7.6 

55.2 

Rice  hulls  

8.8 

3.2 

1.0 

36.2 

35.2 

15.6 

.3 

20.1 

Rice  meal  

10.2 

12.0 

13.1 

5.4 

51.2 

8.1 

7.4 

75.1 

Rice  polish  

10.8 

11.9 

7.2 

3.3 

62.3 

4.8 

7.9 

70.5 

Rye  bran  

11.6 

14.6 

2.8 

3.5 

63.9 

3.4 

11.2 

52.9 

Rye  feed  

12.4 

15.7 

3.1 

4.1 

61.5 

3.2 

12.6 

62.9 

Rye  middlings  .... 
Soybean  meal  .... 

11.8 
12.6 

14.3 
41.4 

2.9 
7.2 

2.4 
5.3 

66.9 

28.2 

1.7 
5.3 

11.0 
36.0 

58.8 
34.3 

Wheat  bran  

11.9 

15.4 

4.0 

9.0 

53.9 

5.8 

11.9 

47.6 

Wheat    middlings, 

flour  

10.0 

19.2 

4.8 

3.2 

59.6 

3.2 

16.9 

62.8 

Wheat    middlings, 

standard  (shorts) 

11.2 

16.9 

5.1 

6.2 

56.2 

4.4 

13.0 

55.8 

Animal  Fteds: 

Bone  meal  (raw)  . 

8.0 

23.9 

.3 

3.4 

64.4 

19.11 

Buttermilk  

90.4 

4.0 

.5 

.  .  . 

4.4 

.7 

3.8 

5.5 

Cows'  milk,  colos- 

trum   

74.6 

17.6 

3.6 

2.7 

1.6 

16.7 

10.8 

Cows'  milk,  normal 

87.3 

3.4 

3.7 

4.9 

.7 

3.2 

13.2 

Dried  blood  

8.5 

84.4 

2.5 

4.7 

60.8 

5.6 

Fish  meal 

10.8 

48.4 

11.6 

29.2 

45.0 

25.7 

Meat  meal 

10.7 

71.2 

13.7 

".3 

4.1 

66.2 

30.2 

Skim  milk  

90.5 

3.5 

.2 

4.9 

.9 

3.3 

5.4  - 

Tankage  

7.0 

53.9 

11.8 

5.8 

5.6 

15.9 

50.1 

26.1 

Whey  

93.4 

.9 

1.3 

4.8 

.6 

.9 

7.7 

1  Assumed. 


344 


APPENDIX 


TABLE  II. — Ready  Reference  Tables  of  Composition  of  Feeds. 

(Hills.) 

The  following  tables  save  calculations  of  percentages;  since  the  weights 
and  contents  are  given  in  pounds,  it  is  only  necessary  to  find  the  kind  and 
desired  amount  of  a  certain  feed,  and  the  tables  give  the  exact  feed  contents 
in  pounds;  e.g.,  15  pounds  of  green  fodder  corn  contain  3.1  pounds  of  dry 
matter,  0.17  pound  of  digestible  protein,  and  1.9  pounds  digestible  carbo- 
hydrates and  fat. 


Pounds  of 
feed 

II 
|I 

Protein 

Carbohy- 
drates 
and  fat 

Total  dry 
matter 

Protein 

Carbohy- 
drates 
and  fat 

>>K 

f.S 

I1 

Protein 

Carbohy- 
drates 
and  fat 

Green 
fodders 

Pasture  grass 
1  :  4.8 

Timothy  grass 
1  :  14.3 

Ky.  blue  grass, 
1  :  9.2 

21A 

0.5 
1.0 
2.0 
3.0 
4.0 
5.0 
6.0 
7.0 
8.0 

0.06 
0.12 
0.23 
0.35 
0.46 
0.58 
0.69 
0.81 
0.92 

0.3 
0.6 
1.1 
1.7 
2.2 
2.8 
3.3 
3.9 
4.4 

1.0 
1.9 
3.8 
5.8 
7.7 
9.6 
11.5 
13.4 
15.4 

0.04 
0.08 
0.15 
0.23 
0.30 
0.38 
0.45 
0.53 
0.60 

0.5 
1.1 
2.1 
3.2 
4.3 
5.4 
6.4 
7.5 
8.6 

0.9 
1.8 

3.5 
5.2 
7.0 

8.7 
10.5 
12.2 
14.0 

0.05 
0.10 
0.20 
0.30 
0.40 
0.50 
0.60 
0.70 
0.80 

0.5 
0.9 
1.8 
2.7 
3.7 
4.7 
5.5 
6.4 
7.3 

5     
10     
15     
20     
25     

30     

35     
40     

Green  fodder 
corn,  1  :  11.7 

Green  oat 
fodder,  1  :  8.7 

Green  rye 
fodder,  1  :  7.2 

2^  
5     
10 

0.5 

1.0 
2.1 
3.1 

4.1 
5.2 
6.2 

7.2 
8.3 

0.03 
0.06 
0.11 
0.17 
0.22 
0.28 
0.33 
0.39 
0.44 

0.3 
0.6 
1.3 
1.9 
2.6 
3.2 
3.9 
4.5 
5.2 

0.9 
1.9 

3.8 
5.7 
7.6 
9.5 
11.3 
13.2 
15.1 

0.06 
0.12 
0.24 
0.36 
0.48 
0.60 
0.72 
0.84 
0.96- 

0.5 
1.0 
2.1 
3.1 
4.2 
5.2 
6.2 
7.3 
8.3 

0.6 

1.2 
2.3 
3.5 
4.7 
5.9 
7.0 
8.2 
9.4 

0.05 
0.11 
0.21 
0.32 
0.42 
0.52 
0.63 
0.74 
0.84 

0.4 
0.7 
1.5 
2.3 
3.0 
3.8 
4.5 
5.3 
6.0 

15 

20     
25     
30     
35     

40 

Oats  and  peas, 
1  :4.2 

Barley  and  peas, 
1  :  3.2 

Red  clover 
(green),  1  :  5.7 

2M  
5     

0.5 
1.1 
2.1 
3.2 
4.3 
5.3 
6.4 
7.5 
8.5 

0.07 
0.14 
0.27 
0.41 
0.54 
0.68 
0.81 
0.95 
1.08 

0.3 
0.5 
1.1 
1.7 
2.3 
2.9 
3.4 
4.0 
4.6 

0.5 
1.0 
2.1 
3.1 

4.1 
5.2 
6.2 

7.2 
8.2 

0.07 
0.14 
0.28 
0.42 
0.56 
0.70 
0.84 
0.98 
1.12 

0.2 
0.4 
0.9 
1.4 
1.8 
2.3 
2.7 
3.2 
3.6 

0.7 
1.5 
2.9 
4.4 
5.9 
7.3 
8.8 
10.2 
11.7 

0.07 
0.15 
0.29 
0.44 
0.58 
0.73 
0.87 
1.02 
1.16 

0.4 
0.8 
1.6 
2.5 
3.3 
4.1 
4.9 
5.7 
6.6 

10 

15     
20     
25     
30     
35 

40     

APPENDIX 


345 


Composition  of  Feeds — Continued 


Pounds  of 
feed 

Total  dry 
matter 

Protein 

£jl 

SI'S 

3"* 

i| 

I1 

Protein 

*a« 
a®** 

|2-§ 

S73  * 

0 

Total  dry 
matter 

Protein 

>>m  oj 

m 

a'v  « 

0 

Green  fodders 

Corn  silage, 
1  :  11.9 

Corn  stover 
silage,  1  :  15.0 

Clover  silage, 
1  :4.7 

2K  

0.7 
1.3 
2.6 
4.0 
5.3 
6.6 
7.9 
9.2 
10.6 

0.03 
0.06 
0.14 
0.20 
0.26 
0.33 
0.39 
0.46 
0.52 

0.4 

0.8 
1.6 
2.3 
3.1 
3.9 
4.7 
5.5 
6.2 

0.7 
1.3 
2.6 
3.9 
5.3 
6.6 
7.9 
9.2 
10.5 

0.03 
0.06 
0.11 
0.17 
0.22 
0.28 
0.33 
0.39 
0.44 

0.4 

0.8 
1.7 
2.5 
3.3 
4.1 
5.0 
5.8 
6.6 

0.7 
1.4 

2.8 
4.2 
5.6 
7.0 
8.4 
9.8 
11.2 

0.07 
0.14 
0.27 
0.41 
0.54 
0.68 
0.81 
0.95 
1.08 

0.3 
0.6 
1.3 
1.9 
2.6 
3.2 
3.9 
4.5 
5.1 

5     
10     
15 

20     

25     

30     

35 

40     

Roots 

Potatoes,  1  :  17.3 

Sugar  beets,  1  :  6.8 

Carrots,  1  :  9.6 

214 

0.5 
1.1 
2.1 
3.2 

4.2 
5.3 
6.3 
7.4 

8.4 

0.02 
0.05 
0.09 
0.14 
0.18 
0.23 
0.27 
0.32 
0.36 

0.4 
0.8 
1.6 
2.3 
3.1 
3.9 
4.7 
5.4 
6.2 

0.3 
0.7 
1.4 
2.0 
2.7 
3.4 
4.1 
4.7 
5.4 

0.04 
0.08 
0.16 
0.24 
0.32 
0.40 
0.48 
0.56 
0.64 

0.3 
0.5 
1.1 
1.7 
2.2 
2.7 
3.3 
3.8 
4.4 

0.3 
0.5 
1.1 
1.6 
2.3 
2.9 
3.4 
4.0 
4.6 

0.03 
0.05 
0.10 
0.15 
0.20 
0.25 
0.30 
0.35 
0.40 

0.2 
0.5 
1.0 
1.4 

1.9 
2.4 
2.9 
3.4 
3.8 

5     
10     
15     
20     

25     
30 

35     
40     

Mangels,  1  :  4.9 

Rutabagas,  1  :  8.6 

Turnips,  1  :  7.7 

iy2.. 

0.2 

0.4 
0.9 
1.4 
1.8 
2.3 
2.7 
3.2 
3.6 

0.03 
0.06 
0.11 
0.17 
0.22 
0.28 
0.33 
0.39 
0.44 

0.1 
0.3 
0.5 
0.8 
1.1 
1.4 
1.6 
1.9 
2.2 

0.3 
0.5 
1.1 
1.6 
2.3 
2.9 
3.4 
4.0 
4.6 

0.03 
0.05 
0.10 
0.15 
0.20 
0.25 
0.30 
0.35 
0.40 

0.2 
0.4 
0.9 
1.3 
1.7 
2.2 
2.6 
3.0 
3.4 

0.2 
0.5 
1.0 
1.4 
1.9 
2.4 
2.9 
3.3 
3.8 

0.03 
0.05 
0.10 
0.15 
0.20 
0.25 
0.30 
0.35 
0.40 

0.2 
0.4 
0.8 
1.2 
1.5 
1.9 
2.3 
2.7 
3.1 

5     
10     
15     

20     

25 

30     
35     
40     

Milk 

Skim  milk,  1  :  2.0 

Buttermilk,  1  :  1.7 

Whey,  1  :  8.7 

I*  

0.2 
0.5 
0.9 
1.4 
1.9 
2.4 
2.8 
3.2 
3.7 

0.07 
0.15 
0.29 
0.44 
0.58 
0.73 
0.87 
1.02 
1.16 

0.1 
0.3 
0.6 
0.9 
1.2 
1.6 
1.8 
2.1 
2.4 

0.2 
0.5 
1.0 
1.5 
2.0 
2.5 
3.0 
3.5 
4.0 

0.10 
0.19 
0.38 
0.57 
0.76 
0.95 
1.14 
1.33 
1.52 

0.2 
0.3 
0.6 
1.0 
1.3 
1.6 
1.9 
2.2 
2.6 

0.2 
0.3 
0.6 
0.9 
1.2 
1.5 
1.9 
2.2 
2.5 

0.02 
0.03 
0.06 
0.09 
0.12 
0.15 
0.18 
0.21 
0.24 

0.1 
0.3 
0.5 
0.8 
1.0 
1.3 
1.6 
1.8 
2.1 

10 

15     . 

20     . 

25     
30     

35     

40     

346 


APPENDIX 


Composition  of  Feeds — Continued 


Pounds  of 
feed 

SS 

I1 

Protein 

*j! 

-SI'S 

ra 

fc* 

TiS 

I1 

Protein 

>|l 

-§£1 
&-«« 

0 

b. 
«| 

P 

Protein 

>,  ro"c3 

m 

s^« 

u 

Hays 

Mixed  hay, 
1  :  10.0 

Timothy  hay, 
1  :  16.5 

Ky.  blue  grass 
hay,  1  :  10.6 

214 

2.1 

4.2 
6.4 
8.5 
10.6 
12.7 
14.8 
16.9 
21.2 

0.11 
0.22 
0.33 
0.44 
0.55 
0.66 
0.77 
0.88 
1.10 

1.1 

2.2 
3.3 

4.4 
5.5 
6.6 
7.7 
8.8 
11.0 

2.2 

4.3 
6.5 

8.7 
10.9 
13.0 
15.2 
17.4 
21.7 

0.07 
0.14 
0.21 
0.28 
0.35 
0.42 
0.49 
0.56 
0.70 

1.2 
2.3 
3.5 
4.6 
5.8 
6.9 
8.1 
9.2 
11.6 

1.9 
3.7 
5.6 
7.4 
9.2 
11.1 
13.0 
14.8 
18.5 

0.09 
0.19 

0.28 
0.37 
0.46 
0.56 
0.65 
0.74 
0.93 

1.0 
2.0 
3.0 
3.9 
4.9 
5.9 
6.9 
7.9 
9.9 

5 

7^  
10     
12^  
15     .        ... 

nlA  

20     
25     

Oat  hay,  1  :  9.9 

Oat  and  pea  hay, 
1  :  4.1 

Hungarian,  1  :  10.0 

VA  

5     

2.3 

4.6 
6.8 
9.1 
11.4 
13.7 
16.0 
18.2 
2.28 

0.10 
0.21 
0.31 
0.41 
0.51 
0.62 
0.72 
0.82 
1.03 

1.0 
2.0 
3.0 
4.0 
5.1 
6.1 
7.1 
8.1 
10.2 

2.2 

4.4 
6.6 
8.9 
11.1 
13.3 
15.5 
17.7 
22.1 

0.28 
0.56 
0.84 
1.12 
1.40 
1.68 
1.96 
2.24 
2.80 

1.2 
2.3 
3.5 
4.6 
5.8 
6.9 
8.1 
9.2 
11.6 

2.1 

4.2 
6.3 
8.4 
10.4 
12.5 
14.6 
16.7 
20.9 

0.12 
0.25 
0.37 
0.49 
0.62 
0.74 
0.86 
0.98 
1.23 

1.2 
2.4 
3.0 
4.9 
6.2 
7.4 
8.6 
9.8 
12.3 

iy2  

10     ... 

i2y2  

15     

17V4. 

20     .. 

25     

Red  clover  hay, 
1  :  5.9 

Alsike  clover  hay, 
1  :  5.5 

Oat  straw, 
1  :  38.3 

2^ 

2.1 
4.2 

6.4 
8.5 
10.6 
12.7 
14.8 
16.9 
21.2 

0.18 
0.36 
0.53 
0.71 
0.89 
1.07 
1.24 
1.42 
1.78 

1.0 
2.1 
3.2 
4.2 
5.2 
6.3 
7.3 
8.3 
10.5 

2.3 

4.5 
6.8 
9.0 
11.3 
13.5 
15.8 
18.1 
22.6 

0.21 
0.42 
0.63 
0.84 
1.05 
1.26 
1.47 
1.68 
2.10 

1.2 
2.3 
3.5 
4.6 
5.8 
6.9 
8.1 
9.2 
11.6 

2.3 

4.6 
6.8 
9.1 
11.4 
13.9 
16.0 
18.2 
22.7 

0.03 
0.06 
0.09 
0.12 
0.15 
0.18 
0.21 
0.24 
0.30 

1,2 
2.3 
3.5 
4.6 
5.8 
6.9 
8.1 
9.2 
11.5 

5 

7U 

10     
1214 

15     

17^. 

20     
25 

Dry 
fodders 

Corn  fodder, 
1  :  14.3 

Corn  stover, 
1  :  23.6 

Wheat  straw, 
1  :  93.0 

2y2  

5     
7^.. 

1.4 

2.9 
4.3 
5.8 
•   7.2 
8.7 
10.1 
11.6 
14.5 

0.06 
0.13 
0.19 
0.25 
0.32 
0.38 
0.44 
0.50 
0.63 

0.9 
1.8 
2.7 
3.6 
4.5 
5.4 
6.2 
7.1 
8.9 

1.5 
3.0 
4.5 
6.0 
7.5 
9.0 
10.5 
12.0 
15.0 

0.04 
0.07 
0.11 
0.14 
0.18 
0.21 
0.25 
0.28 
0.35 

0.8 
1.7 
2.5 
3.3 
4.1 
5.0 
5.8 
6.6 
8.3 

2.3 
4.5 
6.8 
9.0 
11.3 
13.5 
15.8 
18.1 
22.6 

0.01 
0.02 
0.03 
0.04 
0.05 
0.06 
0.07 
0.08 
0.10 

0.9 
1.9 
2.8 
3.7 
4.6 
5.6 
6.5 
7.4 
9.3 

10     
123^  
15     

17^  
20     
25     

APPENDIX 


347 


Composition  of  Feeds — Continued 


Pounds  of 
feed 

fru 

1 

Protein 

>>  oa  "c3 

m 

STSCS 
O 

11 

I1 

Protein 

£j3 
-SI'S 

S-a- 
O 

li 
|i 

Protein 

Carbohy- 
drates 
and  fat 

Grains 

Corn  meal,  1  :  9.9 

Corn  and  cob 
meal,  1  :  13.9 

Oats,  1  :  6.2 

y. 

0.2 
0.4 
0.9 
1.8 
2.7 
3.6 
4.5 
6.7 
8.9 

0.02 
0.04 
0.08 
0.16 
0.23 
0.31 
0.39 
0.59 
0.78 

0.2 
0.4 

0.8 
1.5 

2.3 
3.1 

3.8 
5.7 

7.7 

0.2 
0.4 

0.9 
1.7 
2.6 
3.4 
4.3 
6.4 
8.5 

0.01 
0.02 
0.05 
0.10 
0.14 
0.19 
0.24 
0.36 
0.48 

0.2 
0.3 
0.7 
1.3 
2.0 
2.7 
3.4 
5.1 
6.7 

0.2 
0.4 
0.9 
1.8 
2.7 
3.6 
4.5 
6.7 
8.9 

0.02 
0.05 
0.09 
0.18 
0.28 
0.37 
0.46 
0.69 
0.92 

0.1 
0.3 
0.6 
1.1 
1.7 
2.3 
2.8 
4.3 
5.7 

y2:::::: 

2 

3     
4     
5     

71A  
10 

Barley,  1  :  8.0 

Barley  screenings, 

Wheat  bran!  1  :  3.8 

M  
Jfc  •-„•••• 

i    

0.2 
0.4 
0.9 
1.8 
2.7 
3.6 
4.5 
6.7 
8.9 

0.02 
0.04 
0.09 
0.17 
0.26 
0.35 
0.44 
0.65 
0.87 

0.2 
0.3 
0.7 
1.4 
2.1 
2.8 
3.5 
5.2 
6.9 

0.2 
0.4 
0.9 
1.8 
2.6 
3.5 
4.4 
6.6 
8.8 

0.02 
0.04 
0.09 
0.17 
0.26 
0.34 
0.43 
0.65 
0.86 

0.2 
0.3 
0.7 
1.3 
2.0 
2.7 
3.3 
5.0 
616" 

0.2 
0.4 
0.9 
1.8 

2.6 
3.5 

4.*4 
6.6 

8.8 

0.03 
0.06 
0.12 
0.24 
0.36 
0.48 
£•60 
0.90 
1.20 

0.1 
0.2 
0.5 
1.0 
1.4 
1.8 
2.3 
3.4 
4.6 

2     

3     
4     

5     

7%  

10     

By- 
products 

Wheat  middlings, 
1  :  4.6 

Wheat  screenings, 
1  :  5.2 

Red-dog  flour, 
1  :  3.3 

M-. 

0.2 
0.4 
0.9 
1.8 
2.6 
3.5 
4.4 
6.6 
8.8 

0.03 
0.06 
0.13 
0.25 
0.38 
0.50 
0.63 
0.94 
1.25 

0.1 
0.3 
0.6 
1.2 
1.7 
2.3 
2.9 
4.4 
5.8 

0.2 
0.4 
0.9 
1.8 
2.7 
3.5 
4.4 
6.6 
8.8 

0.02 
0.05 
0.10 
0.20 
0.29 
0.39 
0.49 
0.74 
0.98 

0.1 
0.2 
0.5 
1.0 
1.5 
2.0 
2.5 
3.8 
5.1 

0.2 
0.5 

0.9 
1.8 
2.7 
3.6 
4.6 
6.8 
9.1 

0.04 
0.09 
0.18 
0.36 
0.53 
0.71 
0.89 
1.34 
1.78 

0.1 
0.3 
0.6 
1.2 
1.7 
2.3 
2.9 
4.4 
5.8 

y2  

1 

2 

3     
4     

5     

7Y2  

10     

Rye,  1:78 

Rye  bran,  1  :  5.1 

Cotton-seed  meal, 
1  :  1.0 

M-. 

0.2 
0.4 
0.9 
1.8 

2.7 
3.5 
4.4 
6.6 
8.8 

0.02 
0.04 
0.09 
0.18 
0.27 
0.36 
0.46 
0.67 
0.89 

0.2 
0.3 
0.7 
1.4 
2.1 
2.8 
3.5 
5.2 
6.9 

0.2 
0.4 
0.9 
1.8 
2.7 
3.5 
4.4 
6.6 
8.8 

0.03 
0.06 
0.12 
0.25 
0.37 
0.49 
0.62 
0.92 
1.23 

0.2 
0.3 
0.6 
1.3 
1.9 
2.5 
3.1 
4.7 
6.3 

0.2 

0.5 
0.9 
1.8 
2.8 
3.7 
4.6 
6.9 
9.2 

0.10 
0.20 
0.40 
0.80 
1.20 
1.60 
2.00 
3.00 
4.00 

0.1 
0.2 
0.4 
0.8 
1.2 
1.6 
2.0 
3.0 
4.0 

M 

1 

2     
3     .... 

4     

5     

7^  
10     

348 


APPENDIX 


Composition  of  Feeds — Continued 


Pounds  of 
feed. 

is 

I1 

Protein 

£J« 

SI'S 

S'0  * 

0 

Total  dry 
matter 

Protein 

>>tn"c3 

Hi 

U 

b^ 

-5s 

V 

a 
'53 

1 

ill 

08^  a 

o 

By- 
products 

Cotton-seed  hulls 

Linseed  meal,  o.-p  , 
1  :  1.5 

Linseed  meal,  n.-p., 
1  :  1.3 

X  

l/2  

2     ........ 

0.2 
0.4 
0.9 
1.8 



0.1 
0.2 
0.4 
0.7 
1.1 
1.5 
1.8 
2.7 
3.7 

0.2 

0.5 
0.9 
1.8 
2.7 
3.6 
4.9 
6.8 
9.0 

0.08 
0.15 
0.31 
0.62 
0.92 
1.23 
1.54 
2.31 
3.08 

0.1 
0.2 
0.5 
1.0 
1.4 
1.8 
2.3 
3.4 
4.6 

0.2 

0.4 
0.9 
1.8 
2.7 
3.6 
4.5 
6.7 
8.9 

0.08 
0.16 
0.32 
0.65 
0.97 
1.30 
1.62 
2.43 
3.24 

0.1 
0.2 
0.4 
0.8 
1.3 
1.7 
2.1 
3.2 
4.2 

3     

2.7 

4     
5     

3.6 

4.5 

7^  

6.7 

10     

8.9 

Flaxseed  meal,  1  :  1.4 

Gluten  meal  (Chicago), 
1  :  1.5 

Gluten  meal, 
cream,  1  :  1.7 

y 

0.2 
0.4 
0.9 
1.8 
2.7 
3.6 
4.5 
6.7 
8.9 

0.08 
0.16 
0.32 
0.64 
0.96 
1.28 
1.60 
2.40 
3.21 

0.1 
0.2 
0.4 
0.9 
1.3 
1.7 
2.2 
3.3 
4.3 

0.2 
0.4 

0.9 
1.8 
2.6 
3.5 
4.4 
6.6 
8.8 

0.08 
0.16 
0.32 
0.64 
0.96 
1.28 
1.60 
2.40 
3.21 

0.1 
0.2 
0.5 
0.9 
1.4 
1.9 
2.3 
3.5 
4.7 

0.2 
0.4 
0.9 
1.8 
2.7 
3.6 
4.5 
6.7 
9.0 

0.07 
0.15 
0.30 
0.59 
0.89 
1.19 
1.49 
2.23 
2.97 

0.1 
0.2 
0.5 
1.0 
1.5 
2.1 
2.6 
3.9 
5.1 

y 

1       

2     

3     

4     

5     

73/6.. 

10     

Gluten  feed, 
Buffalo,  1  :  2.4 

Hominy  chop, 
1  :  9.2 

Dried  brewers' 
grains,  1  :  3.0 

y 

0.2 
0.4 
0.9 
1.8 
2.7 
3.6 
4.5 
6.8 
9.0 

0.06 
0.12 
0.23 
0.47 
0.70 
0.93 
1.17 
1.75 
2.33 

0.1 
0.3 
0.6 
1.1 
1.7 
2.3 
2.8 
4.3 
5.7 

0.2 
0.5 
0.9 
1.8 
2.8 
3.7 
4.6 
6.9 
9.2 

0.02 
0.04 
0.09 
0.17 
0.26 
0.35 
0.44 
0.65 
0.87 

0.2 
0.4 
0.8 
1.6 
2.4 
3.2 
4.0 
6.0 
8.0 

0.2 
0.5 
0.9 
1.8 
2.8 
3.7 
4.6 
6.9 
9.2 

0.04 
0.08 
0.16 
0.31 
0.47 
0.63 
0.79 
1.18 
1.57 

0.1 
0.3 
0.5 
0.9 
1.4 
1.9 
2.4 
3.5 
4.7 

y 

1       

2     

3     

4     

5     

iy2  

10 

Atlas  gluten 
meal,  1  :  2.6 

Malt  sprouts, 
1  :  2.2 

Pea  meal,  1  :  3.2 

y*  

i| 

0.2 
0.5 
0.9 
1.8 

2.8 
3.7 
4.6 
6.9 
9.2 

0.06 
0.12 
0.25 
0.49 
0.74 
0.98 
1.23 
1.85 
2.46 

0.2 
0.3 
0.6 
1.3 
1.9 
2.6 
3.2 
4.9 
6.5 

0.2 
0.4 
0.9 
1.8 
2.7 
3.6 
4.5 
6.7 
9.0 

0.05 
0.09 
0.19 
0.37 
0.56 
0.74 
0.93 
1.40 
1.86 

0.1 
0.2 
0.4 
0.8 
1.2 
1.6 
2.0 
3.0 
4.0 

0.2 
0.4 
0.9 
1.8 
2.7 
3.6 
4.5 
6.7 
9.0 

0.04 
0.08 
0.17 
0.33 
0.50 
0.67 
0.84 
1.26 
1.68 

0.1 
0.3 
0.5 
1.1 
1.6 
2.1 
2.7 
4.0 
5.3 

i  

2     

3     
4     

5     

7U 

in 

APPENDIX 


349 


TABLE  III. — Dry  Matter,  Digestible  Protein,  and  Energy  Values  in  Common 
Feeding  Stuffs,  per  100  Pounds. 

(Armsby.) 


Feeding  stuff 


Total  dry 
matter, 
pounds 


Digestible  Energy 

true  protein,  value, 

pounds  therms 


Green  fodder  and  silage: 

Alfalfa 28.2 

Clover,  crimson 19.1 

Clover,  red 29.2 

Corn  fodder,  green 20.7 

Corn  silage 25.6 

Hungarian  grass 28.9 

Rape 14.3 

Rye 23.4 

Timothy 38.4 

Hay  and  dry  coarse  fodders: 

Alfalfa  hay 91.6 

Clover  hay,  red 84.7 

Corn  forage,  field-cured 57.8 

Corn  stover 59.5 

Cowpea  hay 89.3 

Hungarian  hay 92.3 

Oat  hay 84.0 

Soybean  hay 88.7 

Timothy  hay 86.8 

Straws: 

Oat  straw 90.8 

Rye  straw 92.9 

Wheat  straw 90.4 

Roots  and  tubers: 

Carrots 11.4 

Mangels 9.1 

Potatoes 21.1 

Rutabagas 11.4 

Turnips 9.4 

Grains: 

Barley 89.1 

Corn 89.1 

Corn-and-cob  meal 84.9 

Oats 89.0 

Pea  meal 89.5 

Rye 88.4 

Wheat 89.5 

By-products: 

Brewers'  grains,  dried 92.0 

Brewers'  grains,  wet 24.3 

Buckwheat  middlings 88.2 

C9tton-seed  meal 91.8 

Distillers'  grains,  dried 

Principally  corn 93.0 

Principally  rye 93.2 

Gluten  feed,  dry 91.9 

Gluten  meal,  Buffalo 91.8 

Gluten  meal,  Chicago 90.5 

Linseed  meal,  old-process 90.8 

Linseed  meal,  new-process 90.1 

Malt  sprouts 89.8 

Rye  bran 88.2 

Sugar-beet  pulp,  fresh 10.1 

Sugar-beet  pulp,  dried 93.6 

Wheat  bran 88.1 

Wheat  middlings,  flour 84.0 


2.50 
2.19 
2.21 
.41 
1.21 
1.33 
2.16 
1.44 
1.04 

6.93 
5.41 
2.13 
1.80 
8.57 
3.00 
2.59 
7.68 
2.05 

1.09 
.63 
.37 

.37 
.14 
.45 
.38 
.22 

8.37 
6.79 
4.53 
8.36 
16.77 
8.12 
8.90 

19.04 

3.81 

22.34 

35.15 

21.93 
10.38 
19.95 
21.56 
33.09 
27.54 
29.26 
12.36 
11.35 
.63 
6.80j 
10.21 
12.79 


12.45 
11.30 
16.17 
12.44 
16.56 
14.76 
11.43 
11.63 
19.08 

34.41 
34.74 
30.53 
26.53 
40.76 
44.03 
26.97 
38.65 
33.56 

21.21 
20.87 
16.56 

7.82 
4.62 
18.05 
8.00 
5.74 

80.75 

88.84 
72.05 
66.27 
71.75 
81.72 
82.63 

60.01 
14.82 
75.92 
84.20 

79.23 
60.93 
79.32 
88.80 
78.49 
78.92 
74.67 
46.33 
56.65 
7.77 
60.10 
48.23 
77.65 


350 


APPENDIX 


TABLE-  IV.— The  Feed-unit  System 

AMOUNTS  OF  DIFFERENT  FEEDS  REQUIRED  TO  EQUAL  ONE   FEED  UNIT 


Feeding  stuff 


Feed  required  to  equal  1  unit 


Average, 
pounds 


Range, 
pounds 


Concentrates: 

Corn,  wheat,  rye,  barley,  hominy  feed,  dried 
brewers'  grains,  wheat  middlings,  oat 
shorts,  peas,  Unicorn  Dairy  Ration, 
molasses  beet  pulp 1.0 

Cotton-seed  meal 0.8 

Linseed  meal,  Ajax  Flakes  (dried  distillers' 

grains),  gluten  feed,  soybeans 0.9 

Wheat  bran,  oats,  dried  beet  pulp,  barley 
feed,  malt  sprouts,  International  Sugar 
feed,  Badger  Dairy  feed,  Schumacher 
stock  feed,  molasses  grains 1.1 

Alfalfa  meal,  Victor  feed,  June  pasture, 

alfalfa  molasses  feeds 1.2 

Hay  and  Straw: 

Alfalfa  hay,  clover  hay 2.0 

Mixed  hay,  oat  hay,  oat  and  pea  hay,  barley 

and  pea  hay,  red-top  hay 2.5 

Timothy  hay,  prairie  hay,  sorghum  hay.  .  .  3.0 

Corn  stover,  stalks  or  fodder,  marsh  hay, 

cut  straw 4.0 

Soiling  Crops,  Silage  and  Other  Succulent  Feeds: 

Green  alfalfa 7.0 

Green  corn,  sorghum,  clover,  peas  and  oats, 

cannery  refuse 8.0 

Alfalfa  silage 5.0 

Corn  silage,  pea-vine  silage 6.0 

Wet  brewers'  grains 4.0 

Potatoes,  skim  milk,  buttermilk 6.0 

Sugar  beets 7.0 

Carrots 8.0 

Rutabagas • . . : 9.0 

Field  beets,  green  rape 10.0 

Sugar  beet  leaves  and  tops,  whey. 12.0 

Turnips,  mangels,  fresh  beet  pulp 12.5 


1.5-  3.0 

2.0-  3.0 
2.5-  4.0 

3.5-  6.0 


6.0-  8.0 
7.0-10.0 
5.0-  7.0 

8.G-10.0 
10.0-15.0 


The  value  of  pasture  is  generally  placed  at  8  to  12  units  per  day,  on  the 
average,  varying  with  kind  and  condition. 


APPENDIX 


351 


TABLE  V. — Manurial  Value  of  Feeding  Stuffs  and  Farm  Products 

(U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture) 


Material 

Water, 
per  cent 

Ash, 
per  cent 

Nitrogen, 
per  cent 

Phos- 
phoric 
acid, 
per  cent 

Potash, 
per  cent 

Green  Fodders: 
Alfalfa  (lucern)  
Alsike  clover  
Corn  silage 

75.3 

81.8 
78.0 

2.25 
1.47 

.72 
.44 

28 

.13 
.11 
11 

.56 
.20 
37 

Cowpea      

78.8 

1  47 

27 

10 

31 

Green  fodder  com  
Oat  fodder....,  
Pasture  grass  
Prickly  comfrey  
Red  clover  

78.6 
83.4 
63.1 
84.4 
80.0 

4.84 
1.31 
3.27 
2.45 

.41 
.49 
.91 
.42 
.53 

.15 
.13 
.23 
.11 
.13 

.33 
.38 
.75 
.75 
46 

Rye  fodder 

62  1 

33 

15 

73 

Scarlet  clover 

825 

43 

13 

49 

Soybean  .       ... 

732 

29 

15 

53 

Sorghum  fodder   . 

82  2 

23 

09 

23 

Timothy  grass  

669 

2  15 

48 

26 

76 

White  clover  

Hay  and  Dry  Coarse  Fodders: 
Alfalfa  

81.0 
6.55 

707 

.50 
2  19 

.20 
51 

.24 

1  68 

Alsike  clover 

994 

11  11 

2  34 

67 

2  23 

Barley  chaff 

1308 

1  01 

27 

QQ 

Barley  straw 

11  44 

5  30 

1  31 

30 

209 

Buckwheat  hulls  
Common  millet  
Corn  stover  (without  ears).  .  . 
Fodder  corn  (with  ears)  
Hay  of  mixed  grasses 

11.90 
9.75 
9.12 

7.85 
11  99 

'3.'74 
4.91 
634 

.49 
1.28 
1.04 
1.76 
1  41 

.07 
.49 
.29 
.54 

27 

.52 
1.69 
1.40 
.89 
1  55 

Hungarian  grass 

769 

6  18 

1  20 

35 

1  30 

Mammoth  red  clover  
Oat  straw  
Red  clover  
Red-top  .  .  . 

11.41 
9.09 
11.33 
771 

8.72 
4.76 
6.93 
4  59 

2.23 
.62 
2.07 
1  15 

.55 
.20 
.38 
36 

1.22 
1.24 
2.20 
1  02 

Rye  straw  
Scarlet  clover  

7.61 
18.30 

3.25 
7.70 

.46 
205 

.28 
.40 

.79 
1  31 

Timothy  

752 

4  93 

1  26 

53 

90 

Wheat  chaff  

805 

7  18 

79 

70 

42 

Wheat  straw  

12.56 

381 

59 

12 

51 

White  clover  

275 

52 

1  81 

Roots,  Bulbs,  Tubers,  etc.: 
Carrots     .    . 

8979 

1  22 

15 

09 

51 

Mangels  .... 

8729 

1  22 

19 

09 

38 

Potatoes  

7924 

89 

32 

12 

46 

Red  beets  
Rutabagas  
Sugar  beets  
Sweet  potatoes  

87.73 
89.13 
86.95 
71.26 

1.13 
1.06 
1.04 
1  00 

.24 
.19 
.22 

24 

.09 
.12 
.10 

08 

.44 
.49 
.48 
37 

Turnips 

89  49 

1  01 

18 

10 

39 

Yellow  fodder  beets  

90.60 

.95 

.19 

.09 

.46 

352 


APPENDIX 


TABLE  V. — Manurial  Value  of  Feeding  Stuffs  and  Farm  Products — Continued. 


Material 

Water, 
per  cent 

Ash, 
per  cent 

Nitrogen, 
per  cent 

Phos- 
phoric 
acid, 
per  cent 

Potash, 
per  cent 

Grains  and  Other  Seeds: 
Barley  

14.30 

2.48 

1.51 

.79 

.48 

Buckwheat  

14.10 

1.44 

.44 

.21 

Corn  

10.88 

1.53 

1.82 

.70 

.40 

Japanese  millet  

13.68 

1.73 

.69 

.38 

Millet,  common  

12.68 

2.04 

.85 

.36 

Oats 

18  17 

298 

206 

.82 

.62 

Rice 

1260 

82 

1  08 

.18 

.09 

Rye 

1490 

1  76 

.82 

.54 

Soybeans 

18.33 

499 

5.30 

1.87 

1.99 

Sorghum  seed  
Wheat,  spring 

14.00 
14.35 

i!s7 

1.48 
2.36 

.81 
.70 

.42 
.39 

Wheat,  winter  
Other  Concentrated  Feeds: 
Apple  pomace  .  .  ,  

14.75 
80.50 

.27 

2.36 
.23 

.89 
.02 

.61 
.13 

Apples,  fruit 

85.30 

.39 

.13 

.01 

.19 

Brewers'  grains,  dry  
Brewers'  grains,  wet  . 

9.14 
75.01 

3.92 

3.62 
.89 

1.03 
.31 

.09 
.05 

Buckwheat  middlings  
Corn-and-cob  meal.  .   . 

14.70 
8.96 

1.40 

1.38 
1.41 

.68 
.57 

.34 
.47 

Corn  cobs  

12.09 

.82 

.50 

.06 

.60 

Corn  meal  :  . 

12.95 

1.41 

1.58 

.63 

.40 

Cotton-seed  hulls  

10.17 

2.40 

.69 

.25 

1.02 

Cotton-seed  meal  

7.81 

6.95 

6.79 

2.88 

.87 

Gluten  meal  

8.59 

.73 

5.03 

.33 

.05 

Ground  barley  

13.43 

2.06 

1.55 

.66 

.34 

Ground  oats 

11  17 

337 

1.86 

.77 

.59 

Hominy  feed 

8.93 

2.21 

1.63 

.98 

.49 

Linseed  meal  (new-process)  .  . 
Linseed  meal  (old-process)  .  .  . 
Malt  sprouts 

7.77 
8.88 
18.38 

5.37 
6.08 
12.48 

5.78 
5.43 
3.55 

1.83 
1.66 
1.43 

1.39 
1.37 
1.63 

Pea  meal   .         .           ... 

8.85 

2.68 

3.08 

.82 

.99 

Rice  bran  . 

10.20 

12.94 

.71 

.29 

.24 

Rice  polish  

10.30 

9.00 

1.97 

2.67 

.71 

Rye  bran  

12.50 

4.60 

2.32 

2.28 

1.40 

Rye  middlings  

12.54 

3.52 

1.84 

1.26 

.81 

Starch  feed  (glucose  refuse)  .  . 

8.10 

2.62 

.29 

.15 

Wheat  bran  

11.74 

6.25 

2.67 

2.89 

1.61 

Wheat  flour  

9.83 

1.22 

2.21 

.57 

.54 

Wheat  middlings 

9.18 

2.30 

2.63 

.95 

.63 

Dairy  Products,  etc.: 
Butter 

79  10 

.15 

.12 

.04 

.04 

Buttermilk 

90.50 

.70 

.48 

.17 

.16 

Cheese 

33.25 

2.10 

3.93 

.60 

.12 

Cream                                 .    . 

74.05 

.50 

.40 

.15 

.13 

Skim  milk        

90.25 

.80 

.56 

.20 

.19 

Whey  

92.97 

.60 

.15 

.14 

.18 

Whole  milk  

87.00 

.75 

.53 

.19 

.18 

Animals: 
Live  cattle 

502 

4.40 

2.48 

1.76 

.16 

Sheep 

44.8 

2.90 

1.95 

1.13 

.14 

Swine.  

42.0 

1.80 

1.76 

.73 

.10 

APPENDIX 

TABLE  VI. — Average  Weights  of  Concentrated  Feeding  Stuffs 


353 


Feeding  stuff 


One  quart 
weighs, 
pounds 


One  pound 

measures, 

quarts 


Barley  meal 1.1 

Barley,  whole 1.5 

Beet  pulp,  dried .55 

Brewers'  grains,  dried .6 

Corn-and-cob  meal 1.4 

Corn  and  oat  feed .7 

Corn  bran .5 

Corn  meal 1.5 

Corn,  whole 1.7 

Cotton-seed  meal 1.5 

Cotton  seed 1.0 

Distillers'  grains,  dried 5-.7 

Germ-oil  meal 1.4 

Gluten  feed 1.3 

Gluten  meal 1.7 

Hominy  meal : 1.1 

Kafir  meal 1.6 

Linseed  meal  (new-process) ;  .9 

Linseed  meal  (old-process) I  1.1 

Malt  sprouts '.  i  .6 

Mixed  mill  feed  (bran  and  middlings) .6 

Molasses  beet  pulp .75 

Oat  feed .8 

Oat  middlings 1.5 

Oats,  whole 1.0 

Rye  bran .6 

Rye  feed  (rye  bran  and  rye  middlings) 1.3 

Rye  meal 1.5 

Rye,  whole. 1.7 

Wheat  bran .5 

Wheat  feed,  mixed .6 

Wheat,  ground 1.7 

Wheat  middlings  (flour) 1.2 

Wheat  middlings  (standard) .8 

Wheat,  whole '  1.9 


.9 

.7 
1.8 
1.7 

.7 
1.4 
2.0 

.7 

.6 

.7 

1.0 

2.0-1.4 

.7 

.8 

.6 

.9 

.6 
1.1 

.9 
1.7 
1.7 
1.3 
1.3 

.7 
1.0 
1.7 

.8 

.7 

.6 
2.0 
1.7 

.6 

.8 
1.3 

.5 


INDEX 


Absorption  of  feed,  31 

Acids,  free,  influence  on  digestibility, 

69 

Acorns,  211 
Adulterated  butter,  23 
Age,    influence    on    digestibility    of 

feeding  stuffs,  65 

Agricultural      sections     of     United 
States,  characteristic  grasses  and 
hay  crops,  90 
Albumen,  22 
Albuminoids,  11 
Albumins,  9 
Alfalfa,  114 

changes  in  composition,  117 

composition,  115 

in      different      stages      of 
growth,  56 

digestion  coefficients,  57 

hay  for  horses,  284 

losses  in  hay  making,  59 

silage,  158 

yields  of  dry  matter  and  diges- 
tible matter,  57 

American   Fat  Stock   Show,   results 
obtained  with  fattening  steers,  259 
Amides,  10 
Amino-acids,  10 
Amylopsin,  29 
Amyloses,  14 

Animal  body,  components,  21 
Animals,  live,  composition,  19 
Annual  forage  crops,  105 
Apples,  143 
Araban,  14 

Armsby  standards,  38 
Armsby's  energy  values,  74 
Artichokes,  composition  of,  142 

Jerusalem,  142 
Artificial  butter,  23 

digestion,  41 
Ash,  7 

materials  in  animal  body,  24 
Available  energy,  48 
Avenalin,  9 

Baby  beef,  269 

Bacon  production,  feeding  for,  314 

Barley,  169 

feeds,  183 
Bean  straw,  130 
Beans,  175 


Beech  nuts,  211 
Beef  calf,  the,  225 

cattle,  cost  of  feeding,  262 
feeding  of,  253 
length  of  feeding  period,  263 
literature  on  feeding,  276 
rate  of  increase  of,  258 
rations  for,  253 
returns  for  feed  eaten,  264 
systems  for  feeding,  253 
young     and     old,     average 

daily  gains,  258 
cows,  influence  of  liberal  feed- 
ing, 236 
production    in    eastern    States, 

274 

in  southern  States,  274 
scraps,  204 
Beet  molasses,  192 
pulp,  193 

dried,  194 
silage,  161,  194 
Bermuda  grass,  102 
Bile,  29 

Black-strap  molasses,  193 
Blood,  21 

corpuscles,  21 
meal,  204 

Blue  grass,  Kentucky,  101 
Boar,  feeding  of,  305 
Body  fat,  23 
Bone  meal,  205 
Breed,   influence  on  digestibility  of 

feeding  stuffs,  65 
Brewers'  grains,  188 
Brewery  feeds,  188 
Brush  feed,  211 
Buckwheat,  172 
bran,  183 
feeds,  183 
hulls,  183 
middlings,  183 
Buttermilk,  208 
Butyric  acid,  23 

Cabbage,  138 
Cacti,  spineless,  146 
Calf  feeding,  215 

literature  on,  226 
standards,  215 
meals,  composition  of,  222 
355 


356 


INDEX 


Calorie,  45 
Calorimeter,  45 
Calorimetry,  44 

Calves,  birth  weights  and  gains  by, 
215 

feeding  stuffs  for,  216 

gains  made  by,  210 

grain  feeds  for,  221 

literature  on  feeding,  226 

oil  with  skim  milk  for,  220 

roughage  for,  221 

rules  for  feeding,  220 

salt  for,  222 

skim  milk  for,  210 

substitutes  for  skim  milk,  222 

succulent  feeds  for,  222 

supplemental    feeds    with    skim 
milk,  220 

water  for,  222 

whole  milk  for,  217 
Canada  field  peas,  121 
Cane  molasses,  193 
Capillaries,  31 
Carbohydrates,  13 

chemical  energy  in,  45 

influence  on  digestibility,  69 
Carrots,  136 
Casein,  22 
Cassava,  sweet,  143 
Cattle  feeding,  literature  on,  276 

markets,  261 

shrinkage  of,  261 
Cattle- raising,  margin,  261 

spread,  261 
Cellulose,  14,  15 
Cereal  grains,  163 

hay,  109 

straw,  128 

composition  of,  128 
Chemical  elements,  5 

energy,  45 
Cholesterin,  23 
Chufa,  142 
Citron  melons,  141 
Climatic    environment,    influence   on 
chemical    composition    of    feeding 
stuffs,  53 
Clover,  alsike,  119 

crimson,  119 

Japan,  120 

mammoth,  119 

red,  117 

silage,  159 

Swedish,  119 

sweet,  121 

white,  119 
Coconut  meal,  202 
Coefficients  of  digestibility,  41,  42 


Composition  of  plants,  6 
Concentrates,  163 
for  calves,  221 
dairy  cows,  246 
lambs,  327,  331 
steers,  266,  287 
Condimental  stock  feeds,  212 
Conglutin,  9 
Connective  tissues,  22 
Cooking   feed,   influence    on   digesti- 
bility, 67 

Corn  and  oats,  168 
feeds,  184 
hogging  down,  305 
kernel,  composition,  184 
oil  cake,  191 
proteins,  166 

silage,   average  composition,  61 
stalks,  129 
Cotton  seed,  176 

belt,  grasses  of,  90 

seed  cake,  cold-pressed,  199 

decorticated,  199 
hulls,  201 
meal,  198 

for  pigs,  200 
iron  sulfate  method  for 
prevention    of    toxic 
effects,  201 

tests  for  impurities,  200 
uses  of,  200 
Cow  melons,  141 

Cowpea  plant,  composition  of  differ- 
ent parts,  124 
silage,  160 
Cowpeas,  124,  175 
Cows,  high-producing,  value  of,  234 

on  pasture,  feeding  grain  to,  94 
Creatin,  22 
Cutin,  15 

Cutting  feeds,  influence  on   digesti- 
bility, 67 

Dairy  barn,  routine  of  day's  work  in, 

250 

bull,  feeding  of,  251 
calf,  the,  224 
cattle,  feeding  of,  227 

literature  on  feeding,  252 
cows,  amount  of  feed  eaten  an- 
nually, 238 
concentrates  for,  246 
dry  roughage  for,  245 
feeding  standards,  227 

table  for,  241 
influence  of  liberal  feeding, 

236 
rations  for,  247 


INDEX 


357 


Dairy  cows,  succulent  feeds  for,  244 
summer  feeding  of,  243 
the  American  practical  feed- 
ing ration  for,  240 
winter  feeding  of,  244 
feeds,  205,  210 
heifer,  feeding  of,  242 
herds,  improvement  of,  237 
products  for  calves,  217 

for  swine,  302 
Damaged  wheat,  170 
Desert  plants,  145 
Dextrine,  14 
Dextrose,  14 
Diastatic  ferments,  13 
Dietrich's  standard  for  pigs,  307 
Digester  tankage,  204 
Digestibility  of  feeding  stuffs,  40 

conditions  affecting,  G3 
Digestion  coefficients,  41,  42 

of  feed,  28 

Digestive    apparatus    of    non-rumi- 
nants, 27 
ruminants,  26 
Di-saccharides,  14 
Distillers'  grains,  189 
Distillery  feeds,  188 
Dried  blood,  204 
Dry  substance,  7 
Drying  of  feeding  stuffs,  influence  on 

digestibility,  66 
Durra,  110,  173 

Eckles'  standards  for  dairy  cows,  240 
Edestin,  9 
Egyptian  corn,  173 
Elements,  chemical,  5 

essential,  5 
Emmer,  172 
Energy,  available,  48 

values,  Armsby's,  74 
Erepsin,  30 
Ewes,  feeding  of,  323 

milk,  composition  of,  323 
Extractives,  22 

Farm  animals,  composition,   19 

literature  on  feeding,  226 
productive  feeding  of,  215 
horses,  wintering,  288 
Fat,  11 

influence  on  digestibility,  69 
Fats,  chemical  energy  in,  45 
Fattening    cattle,    protein    require- 
ments of,  257 
composition  of  increase  of  live 

weight,  20,  256 
sheep,  rations  for,  332 


Feed,  absorption  of,  31 
components,  6 
digestion  of,  26 

functions  of,  36 
influence  on  quality  of  milk,  233 

quantity  of  milk,  234 
inspection,  182 

quantity  of,  influence  on  diges- 
tibility of  feeding  stuffs,  65 
requirements  for  production,  36 
unit  system,  79 

table  of  unit  values,  350 
standard,  80 

uses  of,  by  animals,  34,  36 
Feeding  the  boar,  305 
dairy  cattle,  227 
ewes,  323 

farm  animals,  literature  on,  226 
fattening  sheep,  325 
flour,  dark,  181 
for  fat  and  for  lean,  300 
goats,  332 
lambs,  324 
mules,  291 
the  ram,  323 
sheep,  317 

the  sow  and  the  pigs,  306 
swine,  294 
Feeding  standards,  36 

for  beef  cattle,  253 
calves,  215 
comparisons  of,  75 
dairy  cows,  227,  239 
growing  cattle,  215 
horses,  277 
limitations,  76 
sheep,  317 
swine,  294 

stuffs,  chemical  energy  in,  45 
composition  of,  5 

and  digestibility,  337 
concentrated,        average 

weights  of,  353 
description  of,  90 
energy  values,  349 
manurial  values,  86,  351 
methods   of   comparison    of 

values,  83 

chemical  analysis,  16 
ready    reference    tables    of 

composition,   344 
relative  values,  82 
variations  in  chemical  com- 
position, 53 
Fertility  in  feeds,  86 

retained  by  farm  animals,  87 
Feterita,  173 
Fiber,  15 


358 


INDEX 


Field  beets,  133 
Fish  meal,  205 
Flaxseed,  176 

for  calves,  220 
Floats,  205 

Florida  beggar  weed,  126 
Flour  middlings,  181 

mill  feeds,  179 
Foal,  feeding  of,  281 
Fodder  corn,  green,  digestion  coeffi- 
cients, 56 
Forage   and   grain   crops,   literature 

on,  177 

crops,  annual,  105 
Formaldehyde     treatment    for     calf 

scours,  220 
Foxtail,  111 
Fructose,  14 
Fruits,  composition,  143 

fresh  and  dried,  value  in  com- 
parison with  hay,  grains,  etc., 
144 

Galactose,  14 
Gastric  juice,  28 
German  oil  meal,  191 
Gliadin,  10 
Globulins,  9 
Glucose,  14 

factory  feeds,  190 
Glutelin,  10 
Gluten  feed,  190 
Glutenin,  10 
Glycin,  9 
Glycogen,  14 
Goat  feeding,  literature  on,  335 

feeding  of,  332 
Grain  feeds  for  calves,  221 
dairy  cows,  246 
lambs,  327,  331 
steers,  266,  287 

hay,  109 

for  horses,  286 

screenings,  170 

sorghums,  110 

silage  from,  158 
Grease  wood,  145 
Green  forage  and  hay  crops,  90 
Grinding  feeds,  influence  on  digesti- 
bility, 67 
Ground  feed,  168 
Growing  cattle,  standards  for,  38 

sheep,  standards  for,  38 
Growth  and  fattening,  256 
Gulf  coast  region,  grasses  of,  91 

Haecker's  standards  for  dairy  cows, 
240 


Harvesting,  methods  of,  influence  on 
chemical    composition    of    feeding 
stuffs,  58 
Hay  bales,  standard  sizes,  103 

weights,  103 
for  calves,  221 
dairy  heifer,  243 
horses,  284 
crops,  98 

changes    in    chemical    com- 
position, 58 
composition,  99 
in   the    stack,    measurement   of, 

104 

yields  of,  98 
Haemoglobin,  21 
Hexoses,  14 

High-producing  cows,  value  of,  234 
High-protein  feeds,  11 
Hogging-down  corn,  305 
Hogs  following  steers,  272 
Hominy  chop  (feed,  or  meal),  185 
Hordein,  10 
Horse  feeding,  literature  on,  293 

feeds,  210 
Horses,  alfalfa  hay  for,  284 

allowance  of  roughage  for,  283 
and  ruminants,  digestion  of  co- 
efficients of  hay  and  straw  for, 
64 

character  of  feed  required,  278 
concentrates  for,  287 
corn  for,  287 

digestibility  of  coarse  feeds,  63 
energy  requirements  of,  280 
fattening  for  the  market,  289 
feeding,  277 

standards,  277 
grain  hay  for,  286 
hay  for,  284 
measurement  of  work  done  by, 

279 

roots  for,  286 
silage  for,  286 
system  of  feeding,  282 
timothy  hay  for,  284 
watering,  283 
work  done  by,  277 
working,  rations  for,  290 
Hot-house  lambs,  feeding  of,  326 
Hungarian  grass,  111 

Icelandic  moss,  211 

Increase  of  live  weight  in  fattening, 

composition,  20 
Incrusting  substances,  15 
Indian  corn,  105 

chemical  composition,  164 


INDEX 


359 


Indian  corn,  grain,  164 

field-curing,  108 

fodder,  129 

for  horses,  287 

for  swine,  303 

losses  in  curing,  60 

methods  of  harvesting,  108 

proportion  of  nutrients  in, 
106 

thickness  of  planting,  effect 
of,  105 

silage,  155 

variation  in  composition,  54 

yields  secured,  106 
Intestinal  juice,  29 
Invertases,  30 

Japanese  cane,  112 
Jerusalem  artichokes,  142 

corn,  173 
Johnson  grass,  102 

Kaoliang,  173 
Kafir  corn,  110,  173 

silage,  158 
Kale,  140 

Kellner's  starch  values,  49 
Kentucky  blue  grass,  101 
Keratin,  22,  321 
Kjeldahl  method,  16 
Kohlrabi,  135 

Lacteals,  31 

Lactose,  14 

Lambs,  early  spring,  feeding  of,  327 

fall,  feeding  of,  327 

fattening,  value  of  grain  feeds 
for,  330 

feeding  of,  324 

hot-house,  feeding  of,  326 

weight  at  birth,  322 

winter  feeding  of,  327 
Leaves  and  twigs,  211 
Lecithin,  23 
Legume    hay,    average    composition, 

113,  121 
Legumelin,  9 
Legumin,  9 
Leguminous  crops,  value  of,  113 

seeds,  chemical  composition,  176 
Leucosin,  9 
Levulose,  14 
Lignin,  15 
Linamarin,  197 
Linoleic  acid,  11 
Linolenic  acid,  11 
Linseed  meal,  195 

Literature  on  feeding  of  beef  cattle, 
276 


Literature  on  feeding  of  calves,  226 

dairy  cattle,  252 

farm  animals,  226 

goats,  335 

horses,  293 

mules,  293 

sheep,  335 

swine,  316 

forage  and  grain  crops,  177 
silos  and  silage,  162 
spineless  cacti,  147 
Lipase,  29 
Lipoids,  23 

Live  animals,  composition,  19 
Low-protein  feeds,  10 
Lymph,  22 

Maintenance  rations,  35 
requirements,  34 

for  different  body  weights, 

35 

Malt  sprouts,  189 
Maltose,  14 
Mangels,  133 
Manurial  value  of  feeding  stuffs,  86, 

351 

Mare,  feeding  of,  281 
Market  hay,  103 

grades,  103 
Marsh  hay,  103 
Maysin,  9 
Meat  meal,  204 
Metabolism,  33 
Milch  goats,  333 
Milk,  albumen,  22 
colostrum,  205 
composition,  206 

with  variations,  228 
fat,  23 
production,   factors   influencing. 

229 

influence  of  age  of  cows,  230 
breed,  229 

condition  of  cows,  231 
excitement,  232 
feeding,  233 
frequency    of    milking, 

232 
grooming  and  exercise, 

233 

individuality,  230 
stage     of     lactation 

period,  231 
season  of  year,  233 
temperature    and 

weather,  232 
requirements  for,  39 
whole,  for  calves,  217 


360 


INDEX 


Milk-sugar,  14 
Millets,  111 
Milo  maize,  110,  173 
Mineral  matter,  7 

substances,  influence  on  digesti- 
bility, 69 
Molasses,  192 

beet  pulp,  195 
Mono-saccharides,  14 
Mules,  feeding  of,  291 
Muscular  tissues,  22 
Myosin,  22 
Myosinogen,  22 

Net  energy,  48 
Nitrogen-free  extract,  13,  18 
Non-ruminants,  26 
Non-saccharine  sorghums,  110 
Nucleo-proteins,  10 
Nutritive  ratio,  38,  73 

Oat  dust,  182 

feeds,   182 

hulls,  182 

shorts,  182 

silage,  161 

straw,  composition,  128 
Oats,  166 

and   oat  hulls,   composition   of, 
166 

digestibility,  167 

new,  167 

Oil,     addition    to     skim    milk,     for 
calves,  220 

meals,  195 

composition,  197 
Old-process    linseed    meal,    swelling 

test  for,  196 
Olein,  11 

Orchard  grass,  101 
Oxyhsemoglobin,  21 

Pacific  Coast,  grasses  of,  91 
Packing-house  feeds,  204 
Palmitin,  11 
Pancreas,  29 
Pancreatic  juice,  29 
Parsnips,  142 

composition  of,  142 
Pasturage,  value  of,  94 
Pasture,  feeding  grain  to  cows  on,  94 

for  dairy  cows,  243 
steers,  265 
swine,  304 

grasses,  chemical  composition,  93 
Pastures,  90 

care  of,  91 


Peanut,  126 

meal,  203 

straw,  130 
Peas,  175 

Canada  field,  121 
Pectin  bodies,  15 
Pentosans,  14 
Pentoses,  14 
Peptones,  10 
Phosphate  of  lime,  24 
Phytin,  180 
Pie  melons,  141 

Pigs,  birth  weight  and  gains  made 
by,  295 

fed  for  fattening  in  winter  and 
summer,  312 

feeding  of,  306 

intended  for  breeding  purposes, 
approximate  ration  for,  308 

relation  of  weight  to  feed  con- 
sumed and  rate  of  gain,  296 
Plains  Region,  grasses  of,  91 
Plants,  composition,  6 
Poisonous  plants,  127 
Poly-saccharides,  14 
Potatoes,  137 

dried,  137 
Preparation    of    feeds,    influence   on 

digestibility,  67 
Prolamins,  10 
Proprietary  feeds,  210 
Protein,  8 

chemical  energy  in,  45 

determination,  16 

influence  on  digestibility,  69 
Proteins,  conjugated,  10 

derived,  10 

modified,  10 

simple,  9 
Proteose,  10 
Pumpkins,  141 

Ram,  feeding  of,  323 

Range  and  desert  plants,  145 

cattle,  feeding  of,  273 

forage    plants,    composition    of, 
145 

sheep,  fattening  of,  at  different 

ages,  325 
Rape,  138 
Rations,  calculation  of,  70 

for  beef  cattle,  253 

for  dairy  cows,  248 

for  fattening  sheep,  332 

for  work  horses,  290 
Red  clover,  117 
Red-dog  flour,  181 


INDEX 


361 


Red-top,  101 

Rennet  stomachs,  217 

Respiration  apparatus,  43 

calorimeter,  47 
Rice,  174 

bran,  187 

by-products,  186 

composition,  186 

hulls,  186 

test  for,  187 

meal,  186 

polish,  186 
Ricin,  9 
Rocky  Mountain  States,  grasses  of, 

91 

Rolling   feeds,   influence   on   digesti- 
bility, 67 
Root  crops,  131 
Roots,  value  of,  132 

and   silage,  relative  yields,   131 

and  tubers,  131 

for  horses,  286 
Roughage  for  calves,  221 

for  dairy  cows,  245 

for  dairy  heifer,  243 

for  horses,  283 
Ruminants,  26 
Rutabaga,  135 
Rye,  109 

feeds,  183 

Sage  brush,  145 
Saliva,  28 

Salt,  common,  importance  of,  24 
for  calves,  222 
for  dairy  cows,  24 
for  goats,  334 
bush,  145 

bushes,  digestibility  of,  145 
need  of,  by  animals,  24 
Salvage  wheat,  170 
Screenings,  weed  seeds  in,  171 
Seed,  variety  and  quality,  influence 
on   chemical   composition  of  feed- 
ing stuffs,  54 
Self-feeder  for  sheep,  331 
for  steers,  268 
for  swine,  312 
Sheep,  digestibility  of  hay  and  straw 

by,  63 
effect  of  fattening  on  carcasses 

of,  321 

fattening,     composition     of    in- 
crease of,  321 
feeding  of,  325 
rations  for,  332 
feeding  of,  317 


Sheep,  feeding  of,  literature  on,  335 

use  of  self-feeders,  331 
husbandry,  advantages  of,  318 
standard  rations  for,  317 
types  of,  318 

Silage  and  silos,  literature  on,  162 
for  dairy  cows,  245 
for  horses,  286 
for  steers,  265 
crops,  155 

miscellaneous,  161 
digestion  coefficients  for,  68 
summer,  97 
Siloing  process,  changes  in  chemical 

composition  during,  60 
influence  on  digestibility,  68 
Silos,  advantages,  153 
and  silage,  149 
cylindrical,  capacity  of,  150 
important    points    in    building, 

151 

structures,  153 
types,  149 
Skim  milk,  207 

for  calves,  219 
for  swine,  302 
Smithfield     Show,     data     for     steer 

slaughtered  at,  259 
Smooth  brome  grass,  102 
Soaking   feed,   influence   on    digesti- 
bility, 67 

Soft  bacon,  causes,  315 
Soil,  influence  on  chemical  composi- 
tion of  feeding  stuffs,  53 
Soiling  crops,  95 

composition,  96 
for  dairy  cows,  244 
succession  of,  97 
partial,  96 
system,  advantages  of,  95 

disadvantages,  96 
Sorghum,  109 

non-saccharine.  110 
second-growth,  care  necessary  in 

feeding,  110 
silage,  157 
Sorghums,  172 
Sow,  feeding  of,  306 
Soybean,  125 
meal,  202 

plant,  composition  of,  125 
silage,  160 
Soybeans,  175 
Speltz,  172 
Spineless  cacti,  146 

literature  on,  147 
Starch,  13 


362 


INDEX 


Starch,  factory  feeds,  190 
values,  49 

critique  of,  50 

Steaming  feed,  influence  on  digesti- 
bility, 67 
Steapsin,  29 
Stearin,  11 

Steer  feeding,  concentrates  for,  266 
literature  on,  276 
pasture  for,  265 
silage  for,  265 
use  of  self-feeder,  268 
Steers,     digestibility     of     hay     and 

straw  by,  63 

fattening,  composition  of  in- 
crease, 257 

feed  required  for  100  pounds 
gains  in  winter  and  summer, 
264 

followed  by  hogs,  272 
range,  feeding  of,  273 
rations  for,  275 
relation  of  age  to  weight   and 

daily  gain,  260 

two-year-old,  fattening  of,  271 
Stock  feeds,  concentrated,  212 
tonics,  212 

home-made,  213 
Stomach  worms,  in  sheep,  324 
Storage,  influence  on  chemical  com- 
position of  feeding  stuffs,  61 
Stover,  129 

Straw,  buckwheat,  130 
cereal,  128 
legume,  130 
millet,  130 
Succulent  feeds  for  calves,  222 

for  dairy  cows,  244 
Sudan  grass,  111 
Sucrose,  14 
Sugar,  14 

beets,  136 
cane,  14 

factory  feeds,  192 
malt,  "14 

manufacture,  192 
milk,  14 

Summer  silage,  97 
Sweet  cassava,  143 

potato,  143 

Swine,  cooking  feed,  298 
dairy  products  for,  302 
fattening,  309 

composition  of  increase,  295 
rations  for,  310 


Swine,  feed  requirements,  294 

feeding  of,  294 

for  fat  and  for  lean,  300 
literature  on,  316 
self-feeders  for,  312 

feeds,  210,  299 

grinding  grain  for,  298 

Indian  corn  for,  299 

pastures  for,  304 

preparation  of  feed  for,  297 

soaking  feed  for,  298 

standards  for,  294 

Tankage,  204 
Teosinte,  112 
Therm,  45 
Timothy,  100 

region,  grasses  of,  90 
Tuberin,  9 
Turnips,  136 
Trypsin,  29 

Urea,  22 
Uric  acid,  22 

Veal  calf,  the,  225 
Velvet  bean,  125 
Vetches,  123 
Vicilin,  9 
Villi,  31 

Water,  6 

for  calves,  222 

for  goats,  334 
Watering  horses,  283 
Weed  seeds  in  feeds,  171 
Weende  method,  17 
Western  lambs,  feeding  of,  329 
Wheat,  170 

berry,  anatomical  structure,  179 

bran,  180 

feeds,  adulterated,  181 

middlings,  181 

shorts,  181 
Whey,  208 

for  swine,  303 
White  middlings,  181 
Woodgum,  14 

Wolff-Lehmann  standards,  37 
Wool  production,  321 
Work  done  by  horses,  measurement 
of,  279 

horses,  rations  for,  290 

Xanthine,  22 
Xylan,  14 

Yearling  steers,  fattening  of,  271 


W1U. 

DAY     AND    TO     t 

OVERDUE. 


THE    SEVENTH 


-100m-7,'40C6936s) 


300178 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


